History of the Balkan countries. History of the Balkans - History of the Balkans

Executive editor V. N. Vinogradov.

For the first time in Russian historiography, the history of the Balkan peoples in the 18th century is presented in a systematic form in connection with the situation in Europe. Christians became the attacking side, Muslims - the defending and retreating side. The Balkan direction was born in Russian foreign policy, and its decisive role in the process of liberation of the region was determined. The book contains an analysis of all components of the Eastern Question, the development of the liberation movement of Christian peoples, and the evolution of the policies of the powers. The publication contains characteristics of the economic, social, political and spiritual development of the peoples of the Balkans.
For historians, political scientists, and a wide range of readers.

Preface (V.N. Vinogradov)

Ottoman Empire: from greatness to decline (V.N. Vinogradov)

Part one. European panorama

The Last Crusade of Christian Europe (V.N. Vinogradov)

Russia's thorny path to the Black Sea (V.N. Vinogradov)

Tragedy on the Prut River (V.N. Vinogradov)

Prince Eugene of Savoy at the height of his glory (V.N. Vinogradov)

The Balkan Question under Peter's closest successors (V.N. Vinogradov)

Elizaveta Petrovna and Maria Theresa on the steep turns of European politics (V.N. Vinogradov)

Catherine II and Russia's breakthrough into the Balkans (V.N. Vinogradov)

Catherine and Joseph II: from confrontation to cooperation (V.N. Vinogradov)

War 1787–1791 and the assertion of Russia in the Balkans (V.N. Vinogradov)

"Oriental Romance" of General Bonaparte and the Balkan Dreams of Emperor Paul (V.N. Vinogradov)

Part two. Balkan panorama

The Danube principalities are autonomous, but under double oppression (V.N. Vinogradov)

Socio-economic development of the Wallachian and Moldavian principalities in the 18th century (L. E. Semenova)

Culture of the Danube principalities (M.V. Friedman)

The crisis of the Ottoman military fief system (socio-economic development of the Bulgarian lands in the 18th century (I. F. Makarova)

On the way to feudal anarchy (Bulgarians under the rule of the Turkish Sultan) (I. F. Makarova)

At the origins of spiritual revival (Bulgarians under the rule of the Patriarch of Constantinople) (I. F. Makarova)

Serbs in the conditions of the fracture of the Serbian ethnic space (A. L. Shemyakin)

Montenegro is a Slavic stronghold. Life of society, formation of the state (Yu. P. Anshakov)

Land of three religions – Bosnia and Herzegovina (E.K. Vyazemskaya)

Greece: Aristocracy, Mainlanders, Islanders and Diaspora (G. L. Arsh)

Greece: Trade. Education. War 1768–1774 Revolt in Moray (G. L. Arsh)

Greece after the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace (G. L. Arsh)

Mysterious Albania (G. L. Arsh)

Albania: Growing separatism among local rulers (G. L. Arsh)

Albania: Mahmoud Bushati and Ali Pasha Tepelena (G. L. Arsh)

The last century of the once glorious Dubrovnik Republic (V.N. Vinogradov)

Russian subjects of the Turkish Sultan (I. F. Makarova)

Conclusion (V.N. Vinogradov)

Terminological dictionary

The capital is Tirana.

The main cities are Durres, Saranda, Vlora, Berat, Korca, Pogradec, Gjirokaster.

The time difference from Moscow is −1 hour. Every year during the summer, citizens of the Russian Federation can enter the country without a visa for up to 90 days. During the rest of the year, a visa to Albania is required, as well as medical insurance for the entire duration of the trip.

The country's monetary unit is Lek.

Sights of Albania.

National Ethnographic Museum in Berat. The museum in the city of Berat was opened relatively recently - in 1979. The building itself, built according to traditional Berat architecture, attracts attention, as does the amazing real-estate furniture literally built into the house. The National Ethnographic Museum allows you to get acquainted with the life of local residents, their traditions and crafts, in particular, the process of olive oil production. The museum's collection includes more than a thousand exhibits.

Skanderbeg Square. If Tirana is the main city of Albania, then Skanderbeg Square is its center, the heart of the city, where the most important buildings and attractions are located. The center of the square is occupied by a monument to Skanderbeg, the national hero of Albania. The surrounding area includes interesting buildings such as the Haji Ethem Bay Mosque, the Opera House, the National Museum and the Saat Kuda Clock Tower, built in 1822. Skanderbeg Square is comparable in size to Red Square; all its buildings are designed in the style of Italian classicism.

National Historical Museum of Tirana. This museum was founded in 1981, located on Skanderbeg Square in the center of Tirana. This is the largest of all Albanian museums, it has a collection of more than five thousand exhibits. In the museum, we recommend that you definitely visit the Pavilion of Antiquities, where exhibits from the Paleolithic times are collected. There is a separate Pavilion of the Middle Ages, as well as departments of iconography, Renaissance, anti-fascism, independence and ethnography. Everything is located very conveniently for tourists, allowing you to get acquainted with all stages of the history of Albania.

Ksamil resort. This is the most famous resort in Albania, which will amaze tourists with its clear water and amazing beach. At first it seems that the beach greets you with ordinary, albeit incredibly snow-white and too coarse sand. However, upon closer inspection, you can understand that this is not sand, but stones ground to such a fine state. The water in the resort of Ksamil, located near the city of Saranda, is an incredible blue color, exactly like in a swimming pool. In addition, there are several uninhabited islands that can be reached by swimming.

Berat Castle. Berat, which is located 123 kilometers from Tirana, is not called a museum city for nothing. This is truly a real museum of ancient architecture and history. Berat Castle is one of the most famous places in the city, located in the very center, as expected - on a hill. The citadel was built back in the 13th century and towers over the entire city and the riverbed. Not only tourists, but also newlyweds definitely come here. The views from the citadel are stunning, and inside there are several ancient temples and a collection of historical artifacts.

Rozafa Fortress. The Rozafa fortress is located not far from the city of Shkoder, in a picturesque place - on a rocky hill, surrounded by two rivers - Drin and Boyan. Scientists believe that the construction of the fortress began in the 3rd century BC. It survived the capture by the Romans, the siege by the Ottomans, and the war with the Montenegrins. Thanks to a local legend, the Rozafa fortress has become a place of pilgrimage for young women who ask for a happy motherhood. Newlyweds often come here, attracted by the beautiful views. And tourists are primarily attracted by the antiquity and amazing history of this place, although the fortress itself has not been completely preserved. A museum was created in one of the surviving buildings.

Karst spring "Blue Eye". This spring, located in the south of Albania, received its name for a very simple reason - its waters are truly amazing blue. The Blue Eye spring is today part of a national park and is protected by the state. You can only get to the source on foot, after walking several kilometers. The “Blue Eye” can scare tourists with its unexplored depth - it seems literally bottomless. We do not recommend swimming - the water here is icy and even in the hot summer it does not warm up above 13 degrees.

Archaeological Museum-Reserve of Butrint. This museum-reserve is located in the southern part of Albania, near the city of Saranda, not far from the Greek border. Known for its excavations and medieval Venetian fortress. Archaeologists managed to excavate on the territory of Butrint the walls of the acropolis, the sanctuary of Asclepius, a theater of the 3rd century BC, the remains of many residential and public buildings, including baths decorated with mosaics. You can visit the Butrint Archaeological Museum on the way to the sea beaches - it is located just two kilometers from the coast.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The capital is Sarajevo.

The main cities are Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.

The time difference from Moscow is −1 hour. Russian citizens do not require a visa to visit Bosnia and Herzegovina for up to 30 days.

The country's monetary unit is the Convertible Mark.

Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Old town Mostar. In the Old Town of Mostar, many examples of medieval architecture are perfectly preserved. The Muslibegovits house-museum deserves special attention, where visitors are introduced to the way of life of a Turkish family in the 19th century. The picturesque mosques of Koski Mehmet Pasha and Karadoz Bey are open to everyone.

Neretva River. The unusually picturesque Neretva River flows through the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the Middle Ages, river pirates operated here, and in 1943, one of the most important Balkan battles took place on Neretva, during which partisan detachments managed to disrupt the Wehrmacht operation. The most expensive Yugoslav film, “The Battle of Neretva,” was shot about this in 1969.

Marcale Square. The capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, is located at the crossroads of ancient trade routes, so it is no wonder that its main square has always been used as a place for trade. Today, on Marcale Square there is a market where you can buy a lot of delicious goodies.

Latin Bridge in Sarajevo. This is perhaps the most infamous bridge in the world. Here on August 28, 1914, the event that caused the outbreak of the First World War took place. Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed by pistol shots from Serbian student Gavrilo Princip. In its current form, the bridge has been preserved without much change almost since the end of the 18th century. There is a museum dedicated to the bridge nearby.

Royal Mosque in Sarajevo. The oldest mosque in Bosnia and Herzegovina, named after Suleiman I, is also called the Royal Mosque. It was built in the 15th century, and upon completion of the work it was almost completely burned down in a severe fire. Work to restore the building was completed only in the 16th century. Today the Royal Mosque is open to everyone.

Old Bridge. The pedestrian Old Bridge over the Neretva, built by the Turks for defense back in the 16th century, connects the two parts of the city of Mostar. In 1993, the Old Bridge was destroyed. For its restoration, all the medieval elements that were recovered from the bottom of the Neretva River were used.

Caravanserai Moricha Khan. The perfectly preserved Moricha Khan caravanserai was built in the 16th century to provide safe accommodation for traders traveling from the country to the Adriatic and back. Today there are several cafes with national cuisine and souvenir shops, and the rooms and galleries of Moricha Khan are open to tourists.

National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina is famous for its extensive collections of exhibits. It also houses stečki - carved tombstones, which are a national treasure of the state. The building that houses the National Museum was built in 1888.

Old town of Sarajevo. The capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina is called the European Jerusalem because it seamlessly combines the eastern buildings of the Old City and the western buildings of the Austro-Hungarian period. Pigeon Square with a fountain, located in the Bascarsija district, is considered the heart of Old Sarajevo.

Gazi Khusrev Bey Mosque. The Gazi Husrev Bey Mosque was built in the 16th century and is a perfectly preserved example of buildings from the Ottoman period. The mosque received its name in honor of the philanthropist Gazi Husrev Bey, who actively participated in the construction and development of Sarajevo. Anyone can visit the mosque, you just need to wait until the prayer ends.

City of Kupres. From November to April, the town of Kupres, located in the northern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, becomes a center of ski tourism. If there is not enough natural snow, all four local ski slopes are maintained in excellent condition with the help of special snow cannons. Also in Kupres there are several hotels and inns to suit every taste.

Cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The main Catholic church of Sarajevo, which is located in the central quarters of the city, was built in 1889. Architect Josip Vancas built this Cathedral in neo-Gothic style based on Notre Dame de Paris. The interior of the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus is decorated with elegant stained glass windows.

Greece

Capital Athens.

There is no time difference with Moscow.

Climate. In Mediterranean Greece, summers are hot and dry, and the number of sunny days per year exceeds 300. The hottest period lasts from mid-July to mid-August. The islands are always hotter than Northern Greece. At the beginning and end of summer, nights can be chilly due to the constant breeze. The holiday season on the islands begins earlier and lasts from April to October. In Northern Greece, the season lasts from May to September. The mildest and most comfortable periods for staying in the country are May-June and September-October.

Russian citizens require a Schengen visa.

Greece is a popular tourist destination, especially in summer, and there are many charter and scheduled flights into the country. Direct regular flights Moscow - Athens, there are also direct flights from St. Petersburg. In the summer, there are charter flights of various airlines from: Krasnodar (Crete and Rhodes, Thessaloniki), Rostov-on-Don (Crete, Rhodes, Thessaloniki).

Pilgrimage in Greece.

Greece has always been not only the custodian of ancient culture, but also a stronghold of Orthodoxy. About 98% of the country's population are Orthodox Christians. It is no wonder that in Greece there are many places that are holy for pilgrims from our country.

Athens is the personification of Greece. There are the ancient Byzantine church of St. George on Mount Lycabettos, as well as the famous Areopagus hill: it was from this place that the Apostle Paul preached his first sermon.

Loutraki. Just 14 km from the city of Loutraki at an altitude of 700 meters above sea level rises the majestic convent Blessed Potapius, built in honor of St. Potapius, who dedicated his life to serving God. About 40 nuns now live in his monastery cells.

Corinth is an ancient city whose history begins before the birth of Christ. In this city, the Apostle Paul preached the word of God from an oratorical pedestal, which has survived to this day. Here, pilgrims usually first visit the Cathedral of the Apostle Paul and the exceptionally beautiful Daphne Monastery.

Meteora and Meteora monasteries. Monks chose these secluded places for prayer back in the 13th-14th centuries, and the first of the monasteries was founded by a native of Athos, a faithful disciple of the hesychast fathers, Reverend Athanasius.

Thessaloniki. The relics of the Holy Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessaloniki are kept in Thessaloniki: “The Canon of Demetrius of Thessaloniki” was the first composition in the Slavic language of the saints Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius after they created the Slavic alphabet. Many of the very first monasteries in Kyiv, Vladimir and Moscow were founded in honor of this particular saint. In addition, the city preserves places associated with the preaching of the Apostle Paul when he visited Thessaloniki during his missionary travels.

Saint Athos. The world's only Orthodox monastic republic with a thousand-year history and an exclusively male population. It occupies the territory of the third “finger” of the Halkidiki peninsula. Today there are 20 monasteries on Holy Athos, including one Russian, one Bulgarian and one Serbian. At the time of its glory, Holy Athos was home to 180 Orthodox monasteries.

Shopping tours to Greece.

Shopping tours to Greece are a trip that gives you the opportunity to purchase a fur coat of the highest quality, guaranteed to be made in Greece. Traditionally, people go to Kastoria to buy fur coats, where most fur factories are located. Naturally, by purchasing a fur coat directly from the factory, you get the opportunity to make a purchase at the lowest price. After all, the goods do not pass through a chain of intermediaries, each of whom adds their own percentage.

Resorts of Greece.

Rhodes Island. The southernmost island, located next to Turkey, is a place shrouded in myths since ancient times, where the Sun God - Helios lived, and is also the birthplace of the seventh wonder of the world - the statue of the Colossus of Rhodes. The island of Rhodes is famous for the abundance of sunny days a year, its Mediterranean climate and numerous forests: coniferous, cypress, plane, and citrus. This island is washed by two seas at once: the Aegean in the west and the Mediterranean in the east, and in its center there are mountains.

The western coast of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea is represented by the cities of Ialyssos and Ixia. If young people and active tourists like to relax in Ialyssos, due to the presence of a constant wave, then the resort of Ixia is preferred by connoisseurs of luxury holidays. The beaches at these resorts are sand and pebble or large-pebble, the water in the sea is very clean and clear. The largest European Windsurfing Center is located here.

The eastern coast of Rhodes in the Mediterranean Sea is represented by the cities of Kallithea, Faliraki, Afandou, Kolymbia. People come here for youth, romantic holidays, beach and family holidays. All the beaches are very wide and sandy, with excellent entry into the sea, there are many interesting entertainments for children and a vibrant nightlife, due to the presence of bars, restaurants, taverns, and discos.

The Kallithea resort is quiet and secluded, there are mineral springs, there are many coniferous forests around, all the beaches are sandy.

Faliraki resort is famous for its magnificent sandy beaches - the best on the island of Rhodes. There is a very active nightlife and many shops. The city has a Waterpark and Luna Park.

The Kolymbia resort is a young and developing resort in Greece, suitable for a calm and measured holiday. There are hotels here for both luxury and budget holidays, mostly all hotels are located in a eucalyptus grove.

The resort of Lindos is the largest resort center, located fifty kilometers from the capital of Rhodes, famous for its cozy bays and the location of the ancient military fort of the Crusaders, as well as the Acropolis, more ancient than the Acropolis of Athens. By the way, this is where the best ceramics on the entire island of Rhodes are made. And nearby is the “Valley of Seven Springs”, where, thanks to numerous springs, flowers are fragrant all year round.

Corfu Island. It is part of the Ionian Islands and is the second largest Greek island, as well as the greenest and most romantic. The capital of the island of Corfu is Kerkyra. The island of Corfu is very interesting and original, as it combines the great heritage of several cultures: Byzantine, Roman, Venetian. Basically, resorts on the islands of Corfu are located in the eastern tip of the island and in the west.

Resorts on the northern coast of Corfu delight travelers with stunning scenery and fantastic coves. They are represented by the cities of Roda, Sidari, Acharavi, Kassiopi.

Resorts in the central and eastern parts of Corfu are famous for their lively nightlife and the presence of a lot of entertainment in bars, restaurants, cafes, taverns, which give the cities a special flavor.

The resort of Agios Spyridon is located on the territory of a natural reserve, there is an excellent sandy beach, right on which stands the Church of St. Spyridon. The resort is forty kilometers away from the capital of the island.

Nissaki resort is located twenty-five kilometers from the capital. It is dominated by picturesque bays and small-pebble beaches, above which rise steep cliffs and Mount Pantokrator.

The Dassia resort is completely enveloped in the greenery of gardens and groves leading down to the local sandy beaches. It is located twelve kilometers from the capital of the island. This perfect place family vacation, although in recent years, young people, along with water sports enthusiasts, have often begun to come here.

Kommeno Resort is a very picturesque place on a private peninsula, considered the most elite area of ​​Corfu.

The resorts of Kanoni, Perama and Benitses offer tourists a calm and quiet holiday, and for active nightlife it is better to go to the youth resorts of Moraitika or Messonghi.

The Paleokastritsa resort is located twenty-five kilometers from the capital of Corfu and is famous for its clear sea, steep cliffs, greenery and incredibly beautiful bays with sandy beaches. Divers love to relax here.

Kos Island. The third largest in Greece, washed by the waters of the Aegean Sea and extremely popular among tourists. There are both sandy and small-pebble beaches. The entire island is covered with green forests and groves. There are many historical attractions and castles.

Resorts in the southern part of Kos are represented by the cities of Kardamena and Kamari. There are excellent sandy beaches, a very calm sea and pure water. Here in Kefalos Bay is an ideal place for windsurfing and kitesurfing.

Psalidi resort - offers tourists pebble beaches and emerald-colored sea. Thermal springs are located a ten-minute drive from this resort. The Turkish resort of Bodrum can be seen in the distance.

Resorts on the northern coast of Kos include the cities of Tigaki, Marmari, and Mastichari. They all have excellent sandy beaches. If you like active recreation, windsurfing and wave riding, then pay attention to the Marmari resort, where it is always windy and there are big waves. But the most popular resorts on the Greek island of Kos are Kardamena and Tigaki. Youth resort towns of Kos - Kardamena, Tigaki, Psalidi.

Crete leader in the number of vacationers. And no wonder, because it is washed by three seas at once: the Aegean, Ionian, Libyan Sea! A beach holiday on the island of Crete can be combined with an excursion, allowing you to get to know Greece as much as possible, its history, traditions, attractions, exotic nature, gorgeous landscapes and the hospitality of the Greeks. Among other things, it has the longest swimming season in Greece, and the water warms up to twenty-five degrees. The climate of Crete is the mildest and healthiest in Europe, and the sun continues to shine three hundred days a year! Holidays on the Greek island of Crete are chosen by both young people and families with children, both newlyweds and elderly people, both lovers of a quiet holiday and extreme sports enthusiasts. Crete is universal and suitable for everyone!

Crete can be roughly divided into 4 regions.

The resort area of ​​Heraklion is a developed region, where the international airport is located, as well as the capital of the island, the resort city of the same name, Heraklion. Young people and lovers of active recreation will appreciate such noisy resorts as Stalida, Hersonissos, Malia, thanks to the numerous entertainment in the form of bars, nightclubs, and discos. Local beaches are sand and pebble, entry into the sea is convenient. When there is wind, high waves rise on the Cretan Sea. For a relaxing holiday in this region, pay attention to the resorts of Anissaras, Analipsi, Gouves, Kokkini Hani, Ammoudara, Agios Pelagia. A huge plus is that in these cities there are various categories of hotels and inns, including hostels, which allow you to save money on accommodation and spend it on exploring the historical sights of the island of Crete. Families with children often come here, as there is a Water Park nearby.

The Lassithi resort area is located an hour and a half drive from the airport. This is a place for a relaxing and luxury holiday on sandy beaches located in cozy, gently sloping bays with convenient access to the sea. Nearby is the most respectable resort of the island of Crete - the city of Elounda.

The resort area of ​​Rethymnon is located in the north of the island of Crete. The beach here is sand and pebbles, with a gentle entrance to the sea. The audience that comes to this resort is different: families with children, young people, retirees.

The resort area of ​​Chania is located in the western part of Crete; you will have to travel to it along a serpentine road. But the nature here is simply stunning: dense vegetation, a riot of bright flowers. Local beaches are wide and sandy.

Zakynthos Island famous for its natural beauty: cliffs, green mountains, olive groves, white beaches and a unique underwater world, under the thickness of clear blue water. There are a lot of beautiful secluded bays and bays, mysterious underwater caves and ancient sunken ships. The island of Zakynthos, with a couple of small islands, is included in the territory of a marine natural park-reserve, being the natural habitat of dolphins, various seabirds, monk seals, snails, caretta-caretta turtles, porcupines, iguanas. The island of Zakynthos is located eighteen kilometers from the Peloponnese peninsula. Resorts are mostly located in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the island. There are many hotels of different categories here. The capital of the Greek island of Zakynthos is the city of Zakynthos, which is the center of the cultural life of the island, rebuilt after the earthquake that occurred in 1953. Music festivals and various cultural programs often take place here.

Tsilivi resort is located fifteen kilometers from the capital of the island and is famous for its wonderful sandy beaches, which have a Blue Flag award. There is the opportunity to engage in all types of water activities, a lot of attractions, beautiful olive groves and gardens.

The Alikanas resort is located eighteen kilometers from the capital, it is a center of attraction for young people and lovers of water sports, extreme and active recreation.

Santorini Island business card Greece, with its snow-white houses perched on steep cliffs and church domes as blue as the Aegean Sea itself. Santorini is the only volcano island in the world that has given shelter to people. It is covered in ancient legends and myths about the sunken Atlantis. Thanks to a volcanic eruption that occurred more than three and a half thousand years ago, nature created amazing local landscapes. Everything here still reminds of this eruption, including beaches with black volcanic sand, and unusual colors: red and black, rocks, and incredible-colored water in cozy coves. Santorini is one of the Cyclades islands; more precisely, it is not one island, but a group of five islands connected in a ring around a central lagoon. The beaches of Santorini island with red, black and white sand are occupied by numerous tourists who, from May to mid-October, enjoy warm waters the purest Aegean Sea. There are the most beautiful sunsets and sunrises, extremely hospitable locals, delicious Greek cuisine and excellent wine. The island of Santorini is an unusually romantic place that attracts newlyweds or lovers who decide to hold a wedding ceremony in this wonderful corner of the planet.

Oia Resort is a picturesque village, an ideal place for a honeymoon. There are narrow quiet streets, old mills, endless stairs, church domes, and numerous small hotels. And the famous sunsets of the Oia resort are visible only in the western part of the resort, overlooking the Gulf of Ammudi. From the eastern part you can see the stunningly beautiful Gulf of Armenia, where it is pleasant to watch the sunrise.

Fira Resort is the capital of Santorini and an excellent resort located on a steep cliff. It’s very cozy and colorful here, like in a fairy tale.

Chalkidiki Peninsula the most beautiful corner of Greece and the most environmentally friendly tourism center. Pine forests and olive groves grow everywhere here. In its outline, the peninsula is similar to a “trident”, forming the peninsulas of Kassandra, Sithonia and Athos. The resorts of Halkidiki are washed by the Aegean Sea. There are comfortable hotels, excellent beaches, amazing nature and numerous historical attractions, as well as Christian shrines - objects of mass pilgrimage.

The resorts of the Greek Kassandra Peninsula are the most suitable for families with small children, as there are a lot of playgrounds, parks, developed infrastructure, sandy beaches and a gentle entrance to the sea. But, nevertheless, it is in the resorts of Kassandra that dynamic life reigns, setting the tone for the entire peninsula. The best Greek resorts in Kassandra: Nea Moudania, Kallithea, Pevkochori, Hanioti, Nea Fokea.

The resorts of the Sithonia Peninsula are an ideal place for a secluded holiday, with numerous quiet coves, clean sandy or pebble beaches, surrounded by deciduous or pine forests. There is no such developed tourist infrastructure as in Kassandra. The most popular coastal resort villages are Agios Nikolaos, Vourvourou, with an ideal beach, Neos Marmaras, Nikiti.

Resorts of the Athos Peninsula - attract lovers of silence and connoisseurs natural beauty. This is an ideal option for people who have planned and have permission to visit Holy Athos - the only Monastic Republic in the world where only men are allowed to enter. Since the Athos region is located at a distance from Thessaloniki airport, traveling here with a small child will be tiring and impractical.

Sights of Greece.

Ancient Greek city of Delphi. In ancient times, this city was the center of the country's social and religious life, and even today its ruins make a strong impression. All you can do is walk around and marvel at how skillful the ancient Greek builders were in creating such beauty, which also lasted for several millennia!

Medieval city of Rhodes. Previously, this port city was home to one of the seven wonders of the world - the statue of the Colossus of Rhodes. And now tourists come here to see the Rhodes Fortress, which in the Middle Ages served as a safe haven for the Knights Hospitaller. The fortress is perfectly preserved and looks very impressive and powerful. You can also see the ruins of the Temple of Aphrodite, windmills and a number of other interesting objects

Palace of the Grand Masters (Rhodes). This palace-castle has 205 halls and rooms, each interesting in its own way. Tourists are advised to see the internal mosaic courtyard, the Hall of Music, Dance and Waiting, the Reception Hall, and the Hall of Byzantine Icons. Particularly impressive is the rich interior decoration of the rooms, among the decorations of which there are many antique vases, Greek amphorae and statues.

Athens Acropolis. This hill in Athens is a must-see for every tourist. Indeed, how can you miss one of the most famous buildings of antiquity! The main objects of the acropolis are the Parthenon, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Nike, however, it will take more than one day to explore all the historical monuments of this place without exception.

Venetian harbor of Chania. Very nice and cozy place. During Venetian rule, a harbor was built in the old town of Chania, which today is replete with cafes and fish taverns. Here you can ride a horse along the cobblestone sidewalks or go on a boat trip. However, just admiring the beautiful view and historical buildings won’t hurt either.

Mount Olympus. Do you want to feel like a god, Zeus the Thunderer? Then be sure to go to Mount Olympus to look down on the whole world. The ascent will require some physical effort, although there are campsites and rest areas for tired tourists along the way. You can make the climb easier by taking a taxi for the first part of the journey.

Parthenon. You have definitely seen this ancient structure, if not in photographs, then in the form of numerous buildings that have become its copies. These slender columns cannot be confused with anything! The Parthenon, of course, now cannot boast of its former greatness, however, it still looks like a striking example of ancient architecture. Work on its reconstruction continues.

Ancient city of Mystras. Built in the form of an amphitheater around the main fortress, the ancient city of Mystras truly looks like the “Miracle of the Seas”. Today it represents picturesque ruins, which are surrounded by equally beautiful nature. This open-air museum is protected by UNESCO. The Palaiologan Festival takes place here every year.

Monasteries of Meteora. Looking at these monasteries, which by some miracle “climbed” the inaccessible rocks, you begin to believe in higher powers. The Meteora monasteries have been in operation since the tenth century and have never been closed. Now on cliffs up to 600 meters high there are six operating Orthodox monasteries, male and female, for which certain days and hours are set for visiting.

Acropolis of Lindos. This small town on the island of Rhodes is home to the second most important acropolis in Greece after Athens. The Acropolis of Lindos is famous for its unique petroglyph, on which an ancient Greek warship is carved. In addition, here you can see the remains of the temple of Athena Lindia and the residence of the Knights Hospitaller.

Plaka (Athens). If you want to see Athens as it was many centuries ago, be sure to visit Plaka, the oldest district of the city. Walking along its winding streets with snow-white steps, you can see houses, some of which stand on the foundations of ancient buildings. Plaka is interesting for its taverns, wine cellars and souvenir shops.

Achilleion Palace. Built at the end of the 19th century, the palace is located near the city of Corfu and attracts tourists with many interesting works of art. Here you can see fancy furniture, as well as many statues of Achilles and paintings of him. The Achilleion Palace is surrounded by a beautiful park, which descends in steps to the sea.

Macedonia

Serbia

The capital of Serbia is Belgrade.

The time difference from Moscow is −1 hour. Citizens of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus do not require a visa to visit Serbia for up to 30 days.

The country's monetary unit is the Dinar.

Sights of Serbia.

Belgrade Fortress. For more than 1000 years, the fortress has stood on a 125-meter hill near the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers. Its territory is divided into the Upper and Lower Towns. Inside the fortress are two ancient churches, monuments, ruins of Roman settlements, and defensive buildings. Five towers rise above the fortress, and you can enter the citadel through 12 gates. You can look at the magical landscapes from Kalemegdan Park. You can also relax in the cafe there.

Orthodox monasteries in Kosovo. It is a UNESCO heritage site that consists of three monasteries and one church. A valuable example of Byzantine and Western Romanesque church architecture. They were built in the XIII-XVI centuries. The Vysoki Decani monastery was the first to be included in the list of protected sites. It is famous for its frescoes. This is a valuable example in Byzantine art. The remaining monasteries were included as a heritage site two years later.

Djerdap Gorge. This is one of the most beautiful places in Europe, where the Danube flows in all its glory. In the Djerdap Gorge, near Golubac, it reaches its greatest width - 6.5 km and its greatest depth - 82 meters. Tourists are taken on cruises through the entire gorge, which consists of four smaller gorges and three basins. In some places, 300-meter cliffs rise above the river. There are also many ancient fortresses on the banks of the Danube.

Studenica Monastery. This is a monastery, which is located in the mountains on the right bank of the Studenica River. It is dedicated to the Dormition of the Virgin Mary and is one of the most luxurious and rich Serbian Orthodox monasteries. Studenica was founded in 1190 by Stefan Nemanja. There are two churches inside the monastery: the Church of the Virgin Mary and the Church of Joachim and Anna. The monastery is famous for its Byzantine style frescoes.

Smederevo Fortress. The fortress was built in 1430, when Smederevo was the capital of the country. The fortress has the shape of a triangle. On one side it borders on the Danube, on the other on Yezava. The third side was protected by fortifications. The fortress was defended by a 2-meter wall and 25 towers. In the Small Town there was a printing house, a jewelry workshop, two churches, a palace, and other buildings. The Great City was a trade and craft center.

City of the Devil. This is a place shrouded in legends on Mount Radan, 27 km from the city of Kuršumlija. It consists of 202 stone pillars. Their height ranges from 2 to 15 meters. The tops of the pillars are topped with stone caps. The Devil's City was formed due to weathering, but local residents came up with many legends. Therefore, many excursions are held there at night.

Sopochany. The Orthodox monastery in the Raska River valley was founded by Uroš I in 1263. A little later, the church of St. Trinity, which has survived to this day. Trinity Church is interesting for its frescoes. They have light, light colors and depict biblical images and scenes from the life of the kings of the Nemanjic dynasty. This is an incredible achievement of Serbian culture, which has been perfectly preserved.

Petrovaradin Fortress. The impregnable fortress, which was home to the treasures of the Habsburg dynasty, is very well preserved. It was founded on the Danube in 1692 by Prince Krui for protection against the Turks. In those days, 16 km of underground passages stretched under the fortress. Today on its territory there are archives, museums, cafes, restaurants, hotels, galleries.

Sirogoyno. This is an open air museum. Its territory is 15 hectares. On it you can see ancient huts built without a single nail, household items, a blacksmith's shop, a bakery, and the Church of Saints Peter and Paul. You can also buy previously incredibly popular knitted clothes made from warm wool there. Sirogojno is surrounded by beautiful nature, and the air there is considered healing.

Nis fortress. The history of the fortress dates back to the 2nd century BC. It stands on the banks of the Nishava River and its area is more than 22 hectares. Byzantine and ancient Roman buildings have been preserved on its territory. The current appearance of the fortress was given by Turkish architects in the 13th century. Inside the fortress there is a park, an art gallery, and a cafe. And if its gates are restored, it can become architecturally and functionally complete.

Vrnjačka Banya. This is the most popular balneological resort in the Rash region. It treats diseases of the digestive system and diabetes. It is famous for its thermal springs, the temperature of which is equal to the temperature of the human body. They are located in a park area, and near them there are monasteries and ancient buildings that are included in the UNESCO heritage list.

Slovenia

The capital is Ljubljana.

The time difference from Moscow is −1 hour. Citizens of Russia and CIS countries need a Schengen visa and travel medical insurance to visit Slovenia.

Hotels in Slovenia are comfortable and modern. Meals are usually half board, but this is not always better than just breakfast: the country has excellent cuisine, cafes and restaurants in resorts - in abundance. The hotel base is at a very high level, there are few economical options, these are, as a rule, private accommodation.

The country's currency is the Euro.

Sights of Slovenia.

Lake Bled. The reservoir, located among the mountain peaks in the north-west of Slovenia, has as its main attraction a single island with the Chapel of the Assumption. There, surrounded by legends, is the Bell of Wishes. You can explore the picturesque beauty of the mountain lake from the water surface, moving on special boats “pletna”.

Predjama Castle. The unique property of the Knight of Erasmus rests on a 123-meter cliff and is the undisputed winner in terms of audacity and unusual structure among similar buildings. Predjama Castle surprises with the courage of its creators, who managed to build a structure out of rock. Inside the fortress there is a museum that has preserved the rooms and household items of the owners in their original form.

City of Piran. The Slovenian resort town, washed by the Adriatic Sea, is imbued with an Italian atmosphere. The local “little Venice” attracts tourists with its medieval flavor. The absence of modern buildings helps to secure Piran's status as a museum city. Ancient architectural monuments are scattered throughout, including a monument to the violinist Tartini and a church with a tower offering breathtaking views of the city.

Old town of Ljubljana. The old part of the capital of Slovenia is located on the right bank of the Ljubljanica. You can enjoy the beauty of architecture from the famous castle - Ljubljana Castle. Peršen and Upper squares attract tourists with their medieval atmosphere, and the famous Jože Plečnik bridges, decorated with dragons, delight tourists with their originality.

Bled Castle. In the Middle Ages it was a powerful fortress, and now it is a fascinating observation deck on the glacial Lake Bled. The castle rises on a 130-meter steep cliff; it is one of the oldest buildings in Slovenia. The former residence of the monarchs today houses a museum of the historical development of the city of Bled. Among other things, a winery and herbal gallery are open to visitors.

Ljubljana Castle. The highest point of the city shows a panoramic view of the capital of Slovenia. Beginning its existence in the ninth century, the castle has acquired a rich history. From the residence of princes, Ljubljana Castle turned into a city prison, and only after reconstruction in 2000 it opened to tourists. The Virtual Museum located inside tells the history of the city of Ljubljana, and the upper floor, with its loopholes, shows directions to world capitals.

Otočec Castle. The medieval building, built 7 km from the Slovenian town of Novo Mesto, is secluded on a tiny island in the quiet Krka River. There is a hotel in the Otocec building, excursions are held, and costume balls are held in the evening. The nearby English Park is a cozy place for walking. The nearby thermal springs were the reason for the creation of the Šmarješke Toplice spa.

Ski resort Bohinj. Located in an attractive location near the lake of the same name, the Bohinj ski resort has been attracting fans of winter active recreation for many years. The reason for this is the amazing view of the majestic Alps and the high quality of the proposed trails. The favorable proximity to the Triglav nature reserve, whose pristine beauty fascinates observers, makes the resort unique.

City of Kranj. Surrounded on all sides by mountain peaks, the city of Kranj is increasingly attracting extreme sports enthusiasts with its wild rivers and high mountain cliffs. And for lovers of contemplating centuries-old buildings and picturesque landscapes, the city has reserved elegant architecture, combining several styles, and ponds that pacify with their tranquility.

Tivoli Park in Ljubljana. Created according to plans by engineer Jean Blanchard two centuries ago and housing two existing parks, Tivoli became the largest in Slovenia, reaching an area of ​​500 hectares. The cozy alleys of the park attract with their beauty. Diverse flower arrangements, unusual statues and exquisite fountains attract lovers of quiet walks.

Croatia

Montenegro

Capital Podgorica.

The time difference from Moscow is −2 hours. Russian citizens do not need a visa to Montenegro.

The country's currency is the Euro.

Beaches of Montenegro.

Most of the beaches of the Budva Riviera are sand and pebbles, some of them have rocky areas. Due to the different mineral composition of sand and pebbles, beaches have different colors. Of these, the most picturesque beach is considered to be Lucice (Petrovac), and the sunniest is Guvance.

Guvantse Beach. A beach that is famous for its sunsets, an unprecedented amount of sun throughout the day and a comfortable sandy entrance to the water is Guvantse. Located on the road from Budva to Becici, this piece of coast cannot boast of any unprecedented size; moreover, it is quite miniature.

Mogren beach. One of the most romantic beaches in Budva is the small-pebble, sometimes almost sandy Mogren. Nestled near the Old Town of Budva, not far from its ancient walls overgrown with grass and moss, Mogren almost descends into the depths of the sea.

Beach on Sveti Nikola. Few people know that the island crowning the cozy Budva Bay is considered one of the largest along the entire Adriatic coast of Montenegro.

Yaz Beach. Located just 3 km from Budva, the Jaz coast is famous for its beach. There's sand here. The most natural. Although it does not stretch for the entire 1.5 km, but still.

"Slavic Beach" in Budva. A picturesque stretch of coast near the most popular resort in Montenegro, and even the entire Adriatic, bears the romantic name “Slavic Beach”. Which pleases the Russian soul and guarantees a lot of neighbors with a language related to ours.

The beaches of the Hercegnovskaya Riviera are mostly rocky, which, of course, is a little less comfortable, but they are more picturesque. These beaches have one peculiarity: it is almost impossible to cross from one to another, since the passable roads and trails are located much higher than the coastline. It is necessary to take into account that rocky beaches can be chosen not only by vacationers, but also by sea urchins, since they have something to cling to here, so you need to behave carefully.

Beaches of Bar. The beaches in the Bar area are very picturesque. They are mostly sand and pebbles, but one of them, with the eloquent name Red Beach, is sandy. The sand here is mixed with crushed corals, and therefore has a distinct red tint. Its mineral composition has a slight healing effect on the body, which is another factor in the attractiveness of this beach.

Beaches of Tivat. The beaches of Tivat consist of sandy areas and concrete slabs. It may not be the most picturesque stretch of the Adriatic coast, but it is part of a fairly large city and therefore has a certain appeal for tourists. In any case, during the swimming season this is one of the busiest areas of the Montenegrin coast.

Beaches of the Ulcinj Riviera. The beaches of the Ulcinj Riviera are famous for their basalt sand, which has no analogues in the whole world. Due to the color of the sand, these beaches are gray in color, and thanks to the mineral components included in it, they have a beneficial effect on diseases of the musculoskeletal system.

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Valentin Mikhailov

Valentin Todorov Mikhailov is a researcher at the Department of Geography of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Candidate of Geographical Sciences.

“The common cultural and historical characteristics of individual peoples, their geographic proximity and especially cohabitation in a certain territory are usually considered prerequisites for the formation of supranational identities and the development of regional integration. Considering these theoretical postulates, the main objective of this article is to determine the essence and main spatial features of the ambivalent Balkan identity.”

Introduction

The common cultural and historical characteristics of individual peoples, their geographic proximity and especially cohabitation in a certain territory are usually considered prerequisites for the formation supranational identities and development of regional integration. Taking these theoretical postulates into account, the main goal of this article is to determine the essence and main spatial features of ambivalent Balkan identity. Here we understand identity as a set of subjective and objective characteristics of human individuals or groups (social, political, ethnic, civilizational, territorial, etc.), which determine their specificity, uniqueness, identity, as well as differences from other individuals or groups.

Despite the huge number of publications on Balkan culture, history and geography, Balkan scholars pose a fundamental question: does it exist in this peripheral (nowadays) part of Europe a single supranational identity? In search of an answer to this question, we put forward the following hypothesis: The Balkans is a region whose inhabitants there is a common identity- supranational and suprareligious. However, this identity not too prestigious and desirable, to become a real and long-term factor in geopolitical and institutional unification. The reason for this is imposition several identification markers on each other in the absence of strict boundaries between them: the Balkans, Central Europe, the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions, the Islamic world, etc.

A peninsula named by mistake: physical and geographical features of the Balkans

Speaking about Balkan cultural identity, one cannot help but dwell on the physical and geographical characteristics of the Balkan Peninsula. This is due to the fact that the culture and mentality of the peoples of this part of Europe, their historical destinies are closely connected with the diverse natural environment. The diversity of landscapes is relayed and contributes to the centuries-old preservation of ethnic, linguistic, religious, and folklore diversity.

The peninsula is named after the Balkan Mountains, which stretch for 530 km parallel in the eastern part of the peninsula in the territory of Bulgaria and eastern Serbia. The word “Balkan” itself is of Turkish origin and means “green forest mountains”. The name came into scientific use at the beginning of the 19th century. Then Johann August Zeune(Johann August Zeune, 1778-1853) defined the Balkans as an independent peninsula of Europe. Since ancient times these mountains were called Hemus, Stara Planina,CatenaMundi or CatenadelMundo, what does the center of the world mean [TsvshchiY 2000a: 14]. They served as the northern border of Greece, Thrace and Macedonia. The Greeks viewed them as the border of the civilized world. I.A. Zeune was also convinced that the Balkan Mountains stretch continuously from the shores of the Black Sea west to the Alps.

This statement was later proven to be false, but from the end of the 19th century to the beginning XX century, the concept of “Balkans” is increasingly used to define a new geopolitical and geocultural region emerging from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. Regardless of the exceptional diversity of bioclimatic and morphological conditions, one of the most important physiographic characteristics of the peninsula is the presence several mountain systems: Stara Planina, Rilo-Rhodope massif, Dinaric Highlands, Pindus, Peloponnese mountains. The mountainous character of the Balkans is clearly manifested in the perception of space and the produced geographical images. Perhaps V. Papakosta was right: the name of the Balkans “corresponds to geographical reality - this the most mountainous peninsula in Europe"[Todorova 2008: 71].

From a physiographic point of view Balkan Peninsula takes about 505 thousand km. This represents 4.96% of Europe's territory or 0.33% of the earth's land area. On three sides - from the southwest, from the east and from the south - its clear boundaries are determined by the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean, Marmara and Black seas. The most problematic issue is related to the drawing of the borders of the Balkan Peninsula in the west and in the north - and discussions here are also of a geocultural and geopolitical nature. “In the north, the Balkan Peninsula has merged so much with the mainland that here any boundary line proposed by various authors is characterized by great convention.”[ Wituch 1998: 136]. It should be noted that a number of Croatian geographers generally deny the existence of the Balkan Peninsula. Very indicative, including for understanding the Croatian national identity and its topophobia in relation to the name of the Balkans, the opinion of Mirela Slukan Altić. Denying Croatia's Balkan identity, she argues that only Greece, as well as parts of Albania and Macedonia, have a pronounced peninsular position. “There are no geographical grounds for the isolation of the Balkan Peninsula; The Balkans are an exclusively geopolitical category. Historical geographer V. Rogich believed: if there was any peninsula in this part of Europe, then it should be called Greco-Albanian. This name, perhaps, best conveys the physical-geographical reality."[[Slukan Alti ć 2011: 405].

Regarding the controversial northern border itself, there are several points of view. The most popular is the concept of Jovan Tsvijic (Jovan Tsviјiћ, 1865-1927). According to the Serbian geographer, the northern border of the peninsula should be established along the Sava and Danube rivers, at the border of the Middle Danube (Pannonian) Lowland. The land border with Central Europe is more than 1600 km. In the west, it begins at the Gulf of Trieste, passes through the valleys of the Soca (Isonzo), Idrica, Sora and Sava rivers to the mouth of the latter in Belgrade. From the Serbian capital, the northern border of the peninsula runs east along the Danube to the Black Sea [Karastoyanov 2002: 32]. Within these boundaries, a small fragment of North-Eastern Italy is also included in the Balkan Peninsula (see. rice. 1).

Fig. 1 The Balkans as a physical-geographical, geocultural and geopolitical region
(Auth.: V. Mikhailov, Y. Krumova)

“The Demon of Balkanization”: Geopolitical Identity of the Balkans

After the revolutionary changes on the peninsula in the 19th - early 20th centuries, the idea of ​​the Balkans as a specific geopolitical space/region. Encyclopedia Britannica defines the Balkans exclusively in political terms: Balkans or the Balkan Peninsula covers the territories of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Slovenia and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). At the same time, it is especially explained that “the European part of Turkey belongs to the Balkans in physical-geographical terms, but not in political terms - as part of a non-Balkan state”[Balkans 1995: 833].

The Balkan region, as a junction of interests of great powers, has neither internal homogeneity nor geopolitical independence. The concept of the Balkans as a specific geopolitical space (with a corresponding identity) is written external geostrategists and researchers. This discourse fits into the popular concept of Orientalism by E. Said. Syndrome orientalizing thinking in relation to the Balkan context M. Todorova defined as Balkanism[Todorova 2008]. This approach is discussed in detail in a number of works.[Goldsworthy 1998; Ditre 2000; Igov 2002; Jezernik 2004; Todorova 2008; Avrejski 2008].

Additionally, one cannot fail to mention several projects of the Balkan elites, precisely aimed at realizing common geostrategic interests. These are such geopolitical structures as the short-term Balkan Union (1912-1913), the Balkan Entente (1934-1941), the ideas of the South Slavic Federation, the Balkan Federation, the Balkan Confederation (from the mid-twentieth century). All of these are initiatives of the pan-Balkan unification “from within”, although in some cases with the participation of other European countries. Some of them were partially implemented, others remained at the level of political negotiations or only on paper.

Let's dwell on the concept balkanization. It has become established and widely used in political geography, international relations and diplomacy. Balkanization is defined as the process of “fragmentation of a large political unit and the formation of small states among which conflictual relations have developed.”[Dictionary... 2009: 41]. After the Cold War, characterized by the relative stability of the architecture of international relations, in the process of disintegration of Yugoslavia, the “demon of Balkanization” again loomed over Europe. Geographically, the SFRY covered parts of both the Balkan Peninsula and Central Europe. In world geopolitical literature, civil wars in the territory of the former Yugoslavia were called the Balkan wars, although there were no armed clashes in the rest of the Balkans. In addition, for example, Vukovar, one of the cities most damaged during the wars in Yugoslavia, is located in Central Europe both from a physical-geographical and cultural-historical point of view. However, in the 1990s in the West, the image of Central Europe symbolized civilization and tolerance, the innocent victim of communism. Therefore, it was impossible to admit that Central Europe could be the scene of such events - unlike the Balkans with their negative image.

The composition of the Balkan geopolitical region has changed many times and has never received an unambiguous definition. During the years of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Balkan Peninsula was not yet clearly isolated as a geopolitical space in the geopolitical consciousness. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. In the Russian Empire, the Balkans were viewed as a zone of vital interests in the context of the confrontation between the great powers. The peninsula was part of a large region that included the Mediterranean, the Black Sea-Caucasus region, the Near and Middle East, and Western Asia [Ulunyan 2002: 261].

As modern state formations of the Balkan peoples formed in the first half of the 19th century. the geographical boundaries of the Balkan Peninsula went beyond the political boundaries of not only these states, but also the remnants of the Ottoman Empire in Europe[Batowski 1936: 175-176]. In 1878-1918. The Balkan states were Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece and Serbia. Albania also joined this group in 1913. All these countries occupied an area of ​​about 371 thousand km 2. After the First World War, the southern, western and northern (north of the Sava River) territories of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes became part of the Balkan geopolitical region. The next expansion of the region took place at the beginning of the twentieth century, when Romania began to be identified as a Balkan state. This country took part in the Second Balkan War (1913), and in 1934 joined the Balkan Entente.

Unlike the situation at the beginning of the twentieth century, today the Balkan geopolitical region is a broader spatial entity than the Balkan Peninsula. The last - physical-geographical - unit covers the territories of modern Bulgaria, Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the partially recognized state of Kosovo, as well as the continental part of Greece, parts of Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania and Turkey (see. table 1). Taking into account the territories of all states of the former Yugoslavia, as well as the territory of Albania, Bulgaria, Greece and Romania, the area of ​​the Balkan geopolitical region is 766,505 km 2, and together with the European part of Turkey - 790,269 km 2. In the broadest sense, the Balkans also completely cover the territories of Turkey, Moldova and Cyprus, which for various reasons are sometimes included in this region. Together with them, the area of ​​the Balkan geopolitical region will be 1.58 million km 2. An interesting fact is the inclusion of Hungary in the Balkan region by the German historian E. Hjos in the book “History Balkan countries"[Hjosh 1998]. This position can be partly explained by the fact that Hungary had territorial possessions on the Balkan Peninsula for a century.

Table 1

States lying wholly or partly on the Balkan Peninsula

(calculation taking into account the border described above along the Socha-Idritsa-Sora-Sava-Danube rivers)

The space of a thousand-year dialogue: features of the geohistorical and geocultural code of the Balkans

The Balkans have a long and difficult history, leading researchers back to prehistoric times. Until the Ottoman conquest, South-Eastern Europe was not a “civilizational periphery”: the foundations of European culture were laid here, in the Balkans. American historian of Serbian origin T. Stojanovic, somewhat emotionally exaggerating, defined the Balkans as “the first and last Europe”[Stoianovich 1994]. The Thracian culture arose on this territory, the first cities in Europe (Athens, Plovdiv, Mycenae) appeared, and ancient Greek civilization developed. It was here that Eastern Christianity, as well as Slavic Orthodoxy, became isolated. As J. Tsviich notes, in the Middle Ages Constantinople was for the whole world the current Paris or London [TsvschiY 2000a: 23]. Despite such a rich past, in the last few centuries, under the influence of pro-Western ideas and as a result of the lag due to the Ottoman conquest, the Balkans have become figuratively and geographically denial of Europe. Exotic, semi-Orientalist and inhabited by barbarians, the Balkans contrast with the "normality", civilization and linear progress of the rest of Europe. Having adopted these simplified Western European stereotypes, which go back to the construction of the “Internal Other” [Johnson, Coleman 2012], the residents of the Balkans themselves began to perceive Europe as a civilizational ideal and, it seems, are trying with all their might to leave their native region.

The Balkan space is located at the intersection of two great limittrophic zones: between Western and Eastern Christianity and between Christianity and Islam. M. Grcic describes the Balkans as a periphery, a great borderland and at the same time a bridge between Turkish / Islamic, Romano-Germanic, Slavic / Russian and Mediterranean cultures. The heterogeneity of the Balkan cultural and geographical space causes the ambiguity of the Balkan identity. The Balkans are characterized by the centuries-long preservation of a number of national and local cultures that have never been united. To a certain extent, the reason is physical and geographical features: isolation and inaccessibility of many territories [GrchiY 2005: 211]. A striking manifestation of the region’s versatility is the city of Dubrovnik, one of the centers of European culture, located only a few tens of kilometers from the mountains of Albania and Montenegro, where tribal models of social organization were preserved until the mid-twentieth century.

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the word "Balkans" became synonymous with linguistic, ethnic, religious and racial mosaic. J. Cvijic substantiated the existence five cultural areas on the Balkan Peninsula:

1. Byzantine-Aromanian- covers Thrace, Eastern Rumelia (most of what is now southern Bulgaria), Macedonia, Greece with Epirus and the neighboring territories of Albania, Moravian Serbia, the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria.

2. Patriarchal region - including Bosnia and Herzegovina, almost all of Montenegro, Albania (excluding a narrow coastal strip), northern Bulgaria, excluding the eastern coast, almost all of Serbia. The patriarchal range of the Balkan peoples was significantly reduced due to Turkish influence.

3. Italian- covers a narrow strip of the western coast of the peninsula, and the parts located north and south of the city of Shkodra differ significantly from each other. While Dalmatia developed under Venetian influence, the southern coast of Albania remained under the influence of the less “refined” southern Italian culture.

4. Central European culture (Austrian and Hungarian influence) - includes certain territories in Serbia, located north of the Sava and Danube; modern Croatia and Slovenia.

5. Muslim- isolated areas in the south and east of the peninsula. The Turks had a significant impact O greater influence on the culture of the population of the Balkan Peninsula than Byzantine culture on the Turks themselves, which affected only the upper strata of Turkish society [TsvshchiY 2000b: 33-41].

Another interesting cultural and historical typology of the Balkan peoples is proposed by the philosopher M. Markovic. Excluding the Catholic population of the western Balkan Peninsula, he singles out here 4 civilization types:

1. Greek culture is the heir of ancient and Byzantine civilization.

2. South Slavic type - covers Serbs, Montenegrins, Bulgarians and Macedonians. The Orthodox South Slavs have strong traditions of patriarchal culture, hospitality is highly valued, neighbor relations, principles of solidarity and mutual assistance. Unfortunately, work does not rank very high on their list of values, which explains their unenviable economic situation.

Rice. 2. Building in Belgrade, built at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in Balkan style
(Photo by the author)

3. Romanskaya civilization is represented in the Balkans, primarily by the Romanians. They differ in language, but at the same time they have a lot in common with the Slavs - Orthodoxy, a historical common enemy (Hungarians and Turks), similar traditions, folklore and cuisine.

4. Islamic The civilizational type has become isolated on the basis of religion and is characterized by high religious demands (daily prayers, an orderly life, abstinence from drinking alcohol and certain foods), militancy and religious intolerance. Here M. Markovic includes Turks, Bosnian Muslims, Sandjak Muslims and Albanians[Markovic 2003: 70-73].

The Balkan cultural space took shape as a result of multiple dialogue of cultures, long-term cohabitation of ethnic groups and the mutual influence of different cultural and civilizational types, languages ​​and dialects, writing systems, religious beliefs, and musical styles. Centripetal processes accelerated during the period of Ottoman rule. In socio-political terms, according to M. Todorova, “Balkan societies demonstrate several common features that are a direct result of the influence of the Ottoman Turks on them”[Todorova 2008: 386]. Among these features M. Todorova names authoritarian state control, the absence of an aristocracy, and a small and relatively weak philistinism. All this explains why the ideas of egalitarianism are considered a characteristic feature of the region[Todorova 2008: 368-371].

Regardless of the lexical specificity and serious differences between Greek, Bulgarian, Romanian and Albanian, and partly Serbian and Turkish languages, they all demonstrate a lot general grammatical rules. Based on the unification of these languages, linguists have substantiated the existence Balkan Language League.

Another example of inter-Balkan mutual influence is the so-called traditional folklore. The mixture of heterogeneous components here is so strong that when studying many songs and rhythms, experts are not able to clearly identify the main ethnic tradition. Thus, many traditional melodies that serve as the national treasure of Macedonians, Bulgarians or Albanians are of Turkish or Greek origin.

Another example is the so-called Renaissance style in Bulgarian architecture, known since the times of the late Ottoman Empire. Buildings in this style are also found everywhere in Turkey, Serbia and northern Greece, Macedonia and Bosnia, Albania and Montenegro, where they are also considered as typical “Own” (see. Fig.2).

Balkan cultural landscape and Balkan city as objective spatial markers of supranational identity

In popular culture and the perception of Europeans from the west and north of the continent The Balkans begin where Europe ends. In other words, where order, law and cleanliness give way to bad roads, abandoned buildings, slums of local gypsies, urban chaos, architectural eclecticism and unsanitary conditions. In the mental maps of the inhabitants of the Balkan countries, just a few decades ago, Europe began beyond the borders of Austria.

The Balkan cultural landscape is a common world that every Serb, Bulgarian or Albanian feels as “theirs”, regardless of political borders. Visiting a neighboring Balkan country is not accompanied by culture shock, even if the difference in language and religion is huge. The natural landscapes, architectural appearance, Construction Materials, technical level and aesthetic state of the infrastructure - and with them the mentality and behavior of people. American journalist and publicist R. Kaplan describes these similarities through the eyes of an external observer: “The first time I came to Greece by train from Yugoslavia. The second time - from Bulgaria, again by train. On the third - by bus from Albania. Each time I had an overwhelming sense of continuity and identity: mountain ranges, traditional folk costumes, musical rhythms, races and religions - the same on each side of the border."[Kaplan 2010: 377].

Some geographers and historians use the eastern limit of the distribution of Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque temples as an indicator of the historical border of Western Christianity. It turns out that sacred architecture is an important marker of the cultural landscape for Western Christian identity. It is not easy to find such an indicator for the Balkan region. At all times, the architecture and urban planning of this part of Europe have been under the pressure of different civilizations, which left behind a rich cultural heritage. Sometimes they point to the spread of Byzantine temple and civil architecture as a criterion, but, in our opinion, here it is worth turning our attention to the more specific Balkan features of urban landscapes.

During Ottoman rule, the Balkan city and cultural landscape received material embodiment. The Balkan city represents in the most vivid way the spatial specificity of a common supranational identity. IN XIV - XIX century, the architectural layout of large cities approached Ottoman models. In the process of the national Renaissance of the Balkan peoples ( XVIII - XIX centuries) Ottoman elements intertwined with new ones, giving the cities an exceptional eclecticism. In this regard, M. Koeva emphasizes that the specific spatial structure and visual attractiveness of the Balkan cities arose due to the fact that Ottoman construction failed to completely destroy the old structures that had existed since ancient times [Koeva 2003].

Despite Ottoman influence, in the XX century. a special Balkan type of city was formed with its own cultural, historical, planning, architectural and aesthetic specifics. The main features of a Balkan city are combination mountainous terrain, asymmetrical spatial structure, irregular geometric shape, lack of a unified urban plan; open (unlike Central Europe) squares, stylistic eclecticism, own Balkan architectural style (with XV III- XIX centuries), multi-ethnic and multi-religious structure of the population (see. rice. 3).

Rice. 3. View of Plovdiv - one of the best examples of a Balkan city (Photo by the author)

Among the remarkable examples of the interweaving of Byzantine and Ottoman forms and styles, reworked and enriched during the national revival of the Balkan peoples are the historical center of Belgrade, the cities of Mostar, Sarajevo, Skopje, Ohrid, Tetovo, Thessaloniki, Veliko Tarnovo, Nessebar, Plovdiv, Edirne, Nis, Berat , Prizren, etc. Their unique landscape is formed through combinations of such elements as old merchant houses, clock towers, wooden and stone bridges, churches and mosques, and the civil architecture of shopping streets. Of course "Balkanness" their architectural appearance is manifested in historical buildings (before the beginning of the twentieth century), which were under the protection of the state. The best examples of a 19th-century Balkan city can be found in northern Greece, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia south of the Sava River, Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia, and - with some difficulty - Turkey. This, in fact, is the area where a typical Balkan cultural landscape and a Balkan city are concentrated.

Balkan identity: between cultural affiliation and national identity

Above, we examined the Balkans as a physical-geographical region, an unstable geopolitical region, a heterogeneous ethnic, religious and linguistic space, and as a specific cultural landscape. Please note: the modern Balkan geocultural region is characterized by the presence many national centers in the absence general a supranational core performing consolidating civilizational functions. Accordingly, determining the components of Balkan identity, their hierarchy and significance seems very difficult.

Most scientists agree that for the construction of the uniqueness of the Balkan region and the formation of the foundations of the Balkan identity, the synthesis of Byzantine and Ottoman traditions. As T. Vitukh notes, “determination of the border of the Balkan region is possible only through the superposition of three phenomena that are different in content and dating: 1) the Byzantine heritage; 2) the struggle against the domination of the Muslim Turks and 3) the spatial coverage of the ethnic territories of the peoples who fully participated in the first two phenomena"[ Wituch 1998: 139]. The political and civilizational borders of the Balkan region, secured by the Treaty of Karlowitz between the Ottoman Empire and Austria (1699), the Polish historian emphasizes, exceptionally clearly defined the scope of Ottoman power in Europe for the next two centuries.[Wituch 1998: 141].

The main features of the Balkan identity were determined by the geohistorical characteristics of the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire (XIV-XX centuries). At the same time, it is imperative to take into account the rethinking of Byzantine and Ottoman models of social development in XIX - XX centuries in the conditions of the national revival of the Balkan peoples based on the original patriarchal rural culture and folklore. After the signing of the Peace of Karlowitz, the peoples who are now commonly called Balkan continued to develop within the framework of the Ottoman feudal system. Cultural, political, and economic innovations spread here with a very significant delay. In the following stages, mainly in the twentieth century, the introduction of progressive development models progressed with difficulty, since it was necessary to overcome deeply rooted mental attitudes and models of social relations. The reasons for the lag in the economy were slower urban growth rates, primitive economy, feudal orders, authoritarian governance, lack of reforms, etc.

As a result of long historical coexistence in a limited territory, certain supranational features of material and spiritual culture- for example, in customs, cuisine, folklore, architecture, etc. A characteristic feature of all Balkan peoples is the feeling duality, lack of stable reference points. The long Ottoman rule brought provincialism and a loss of dynamism in development [Bachvarov, Bachvarova 2004: 126].

In recent history, the Balkan peoples, especially the Christian ones, have sought to “cleanse” their culture of the Ottoman heritage. Balkan “revivalists” and their followers began to “erase” Turkish words from national literary languages, destroy Muslim shrines, and massively replace Turkish place names. An illustrative example here is also the construction of the ideology of post-Ottoman Turkey, which, after the revolution of K. Atatürk, viewed the Ottoman Empire and its legacy as something conservative and historically backward.

The peoples of the region have not been able to escape the negative associations attached to the Turkish word “Balkans” in the media and in the mental maps of millions of people. Therefore, in recent decades, the concept of “South-Eastern Europe” has been increasingly used in regional political initiatives, which “emphasizes the European identity of the Balkan Peninsula” [Avrejski 1998].

For more than a century, the debate about which peoples should be considered truly Balkan has continued unabated. At the same time, the location of the state or ethnic territory of a people on the Balkan Peninsula does not always automatically mean historical affiliation with the Balkans as a geocultural space. The Balkan cultural identity undoubtedly includes modern Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians, Muslim Bosniaks, Albanians, Greeks and Montenegrins. Relevant modern states are located precisely on the Balkan Peninsula, except for Serbia, which also includes Central European Vojvodina. The Balkan identity of the Bulgarians is inevitable - the Balkan Mountains themselves (Stara Planina) lie almost entirely on Bulgarian territory. Let us add here that these mountains have become a very important spatial symbol of Bulgarian identity. During the Turkish yoke, hundreds of thousands of Bulgarians found refuge on the Stara Planina: they built villages and towns here that were far from the main roads, from the main military and administrative centers of the Turks. The inaccessible Balkan Mountains were a safe haven for patriots and fighters for justice and national liberation - Khaidutov(gaidukov).

Large parts of Serbia and Croatia are within the borders of the Balkan Peninsula - 72.3% and 49.0%, respectively. In the geocultural consciousness of Serbs, there are no serious discussions about belonging to the Balkan peoples (with the exception of the inhabitants of the autonomous region of Vojvodina).

Catholicthe southern Slavs inhabiting the peninsula, for example, Dalmatia, Istria, Slavonia, Southern Slovenia, had their own historical path. They have formed special civilizational identity. The aesthetics of the cultural landscape here are also quite different from the post-Ottoman areas of the Balkans. The most noticeable protests against inclusion in the Balkan geocultural region are among the Croats and Slovenes. All three historical regions that make up present-day Croatia - Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia - have strong ties to the civilizational traditions of Central and Western Europe. The only exception is the Yugoslav period of Croatian history (1918-1941 and 1944-1992), as well as XVI - XVII century, when large parts of northern Croatia were under Ottoman rule. In religious and mental-psychological terms, Croats undoubtedly belong to the culture of Central Europe. At the same time, one cannot agree with the point of view of extreme Croatian nationalists who claim that they have nothing in common in ethnogenesis with such Balkan peoples as Serbs, Muslim Slavs and Montenegrins.

The definition of the Danube as the northern border of the Balkan Peninsula was supported by the majority of scientists. Romanians actively use this physical-geographical circumstance to define their people as Latin and Central European, denying belonging to the Balkans. With the exception of Northern Dobruja, located south of the Danube, all other cultural and historical regions of Romania (Transylvania, Maramures, Banat, Southern Bukovina) were for many centuries parts of Central Europe, subordinate to Vienna and Budapest until the beginning of the 20th century. At the same time, the Romanian people cannot be excluded from Balkan history as an Orthodox nation that was under Byzantine and Ottoman influence.

A specific attitude towards the Balkan component of geography and identity has developed among Turk, for whom the Balkans serve as a “window to Europe.” The modern Turkish state occupies only 3.2% of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula. However, this is precisely what is used as one of the arguments in favor of the country's membership in the European Union. N. Jeftić-Šarčević argues that Turks feel close to the Balkans socially, culturally and especially demographically due to the presence of the Turkish diaspora here, and in a number of countries, a significant number (up to 5 million people) of Muslims[Jefti ć-Š ar č evi ć 2009: 694].

Summarizing our analysis of the factors in the formation of supranational identity in the Balkans, let us turn to the interesting point of view of A. Alipieva:

All Balkan countries, being at a geographical and cultural “crossroads”, are faced with insoluble problems: where to look for roots - in the east or in the west, and where to go further - to the east or to the west?<...>The Balkan states feel close to each other mentally and are well aware of their image in the eyes of Europeans, but if a common pan-Balkan idea begins to make its way into life, its implementation usually stops before reaching a constructive finale.<...>Thus, in the cultural dialogue of Bulgaria with Russia and Europe, the latter have clear and specific images, but ideas about our Balkan neighbors are usually ignored, and we are not offered enough material for building a common identity[Alipieva 2009].

Conclusion

The research conducted in this article allows us to formulate a number of significant conclusions, outlined below.

1. To belong to supranational Balkan identity determined by a number of objective and subjective signs: geographical location of the country on the Balkan Peninsula; belonging to the Balkan geopolitical region; the decisive historical influence of Byzantine and Ottoman social traditions. Not least in importance is the changeable and subject to ideologization geocultural self-identification of the peoples of South-Eastern Europe.

2. Balkan identity is only one of several possible supranational orientations of the peoples of South-Eastern Europe. “Competitors” are not only more unambiguous, vibrant and preferred national identities, but also, for example, Slavic, Orthodox, Catholic, Islamic, European self-identifications[Mihaylov 2010].

3. The boundaries of the Balkan geocultural region are unclear, and therefore it is not easy to accurately determine the spatial scope of the Balkan identity. Most likely, we can talk about a contact and transition zone of mutual overlap of several cultural spheres at once- post-Byzantine, post-Ottoman, Mediterranean, Central European, Catholic, Islamic, etc.

4. Geographical location of the ethnic or state territory of the people on the Balkan Peninsula does not automatically mean belonging to the Balkan cultural identity. This mainly applies to Slovenes and Croats, for whom the most significant identification marker today is belonging to the Catholic Church./ Central European culture, and “Balkanness” is perceived as an “imposed identity”[Slukan Altic 2011].

5. Balkan cultural identity undoubtedly includes modern Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians, Muslim Bosniaks, Albanians, Greeks (albeit retaining a sense of cultural-historical exclusivity) and Montenegrins. These seven peoples do not deny their belonging to the Balkan cultural and historical synthesis under long-term Byzantine and Ottoman influence. Orthodox Romanians are also seen as participants in the Balkan identity, despite their Latin civilizational discourses and geographical affiliation primarily with Central Europe.

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The Balkan Peninsula is one of the most beautiful places on the planet. Its history, filled with dramatic events, goes back centuries.

Where is the Balkan Peninsula located?

It is located in the southeastern part of Europe, from which it is separated by the riverbeds of the Danube, Sava and Kupa rivers, and the Kvarner Bay. The coast is washed by seven seas, which not every peninsula in the world can boast of.

When was the Balkan Peninsula formed?

The modern outlines of the Balkan Peninsula began 55-65 million years ago, at the beginning of the Cenozoic era, when the movement of tectonic plates led to the birth of the Alpine mountain system.

Greece photo

The Balkans finally became a peninsula during the Neogene period, about 5 million years ago. Then, on the site of the isthmus connecting the Balkans with the Asian continent, the Aegean Sea was formed. Flooded river valleys formed the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, separating the Balkans from the mainland on the eastern side.

Balkan Peninsula on the map

Countries of the Balkan Peninsula

Twelve states are located on the peninsula. Nine of them are entirely located on its territory and three are partially located.

• Albania - occupies 28.5 thousand square meters. km on the western coast of the peninsula. Gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The capital is the city of Tirana.
• Bulgaria is the second largest state on the Balkan Peninsula. Area 111 thousand square meters. km. Formed in 681. The capital is the city of Sofia.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the central part of the peninsula. Area 51.2 thousand square meters. km. It was formed during the collapse of the SFRY in 1992. Obtained access to the sea from Croatia. The coastline reaches 20 km, making the country a maritime state. Capital Sarajevo.
• Greece is the largest state on the Balkan Peninsula. The area including the islands is 132 thousand square meters. km. Year of foundation: 1821. The capital is Athens.
• Macedonia or the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was formed as a result of the collapse of Yugoslavia and gained independence in 1991. It is located in the central part of the peninsula, occupying an area of ​​25.3 thousand square meters. km. The capital is the city of Skopje. Since 1991, the state has been in dispute with Greece over the name, which is similar to the name of one of the regions of the Hellenic Republic. Since January 2019, the country is called the Republic of North Macedonia.
• Serbia is located in the central part of the peninsula and has no access to the sea. Occupies an area of ​​88.4 thousand square meters. km. The capital is the city of Belgrade. It was formed in 1878 by uniting the territories separated from the Ottoman Empire and the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.
• The Republic of Kosovo is a partially recognized state, home to about 2 million people. According to the Serbian Constitution, Kosovo is still considered its autonomous region. But in 2008, some, including the US, UK and Italy, recognized the country's independence. The area of ​​the Republic of Kosovo is 10.9 thousand square meters. m. Capital - Pristina.
• Slovenia is located on the northwestern coast of the Adriatic. Occupies an area of ​​20.3 thousand square meters. km. Gained independence in 1991 as a result of the collapse of the SFRY. The capital is the city of Ljubljana.
• Montenegro is the smallest state on the Balkan Peninsula. Occupies a narrow strip of land with an area of ​​13.8 thousand square meters. km, stretching along the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It was formed in 1878 as a result of the division of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The city of Podgorica is the capital.
• Croatia, formed in 1991. Its area is 55.6 thousand square meters. km and is located on the Adriatic coast in Southern Europe and on the Balkan Peninsula. The capital is the city of Zagreb.
• On the Balkan Peninsula there was also a place for a piece of Italy - the province of Trieste.
• Turkey is divided by the Bosphorus Strait, separating part of the country's western territory from the mainland and geographically separating Europe and Asia. The part of the Republic of Turkey located in Europe is located in the east of the Balkan Peninsula.

Relief of the Balkan Peninsula

More than two-thirds of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula is occupied by mountains. Mountain ranges stretch along the peninsula, dividing the coast into eastern and western ones. They include the Rila, Pirina, Stara Platina, Rhodope, Peloponnese and Pina mountain ranges, as well as the Dinaric and Dalmatian highlands.

The highest point of the Balkans is located in the Rila Mountains in Bulgaria. The height reaches 2925 meters above sea level. Plain or low-lying areas are located mostly on the coast, or in basins formed among mountain ranges. They are located in the southern part of the peninsula:

• partly on the border of Albania and Montenegro, where the pearl of the Balkans is located - Lake Skadar;
• partly on the border of Albania and Greece, where they have access to the Aegean Sea.

Balkan Peninsula photo

The coast is heavily indented and abounds in picturesque fjords, bays and bays.

Characteristics of the Balkan Peninsula

The total area of ​​the Balkan Peninsula is 505 thousand square kilometers. In total, about 51 million people live on its territory.

Minerals

In the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, hard and brown coal are mined. There are deposits of non-ferrous and iron ores, as well as small deposits of oil and natural gas.

Animal world

In mountain forests you can find animals such as wolves, wild boars, foxes, wild cats and bears. Beavers and otters live in quiet areas of rivers and lakes. Greek turtles are not uncommon on the coast. A varied number of species of reptiles, amphibians and insects.

pink pelicans

Many birds nest on the territory of protected mountain lakes. There are also rare species among them. So on Lake Skadar you can see the pink pelican. In winter, the lake turns into a real bird market. Up to 150-200 thousand birds find refuge on its shores and islands.

Vegetable world

Due to the significant length of the peninsula from north to south, as well as the diversity of the relief - vegetable world The Balkan Peninsula is also diverse. The central part is dominated by pine and oak forests, and to the north – broad-leaved forests. Mediterranean vegetation flourishes on the coast - pine trees coexist with palm trees and magnolias.

nature of the Balkan Peninsula photo

As you ascend into the mountains, coniferous forests give way to mixed forests, the main representatives of which in the Balkans are beech and fir. Unfortunately the soils are poor. Agriculture is poorly developed. They mainly grow grapes, olives, and citrus fruits. From grains - wheat and corn. In Bulgaria, the cultivation of roses is developed and an entire industry has been built for their use in cosmetology and perfumery.

Seas

The shores of the Balkan Peninsula are washed by seven seas, which makes it one of the popular tourist routes.

• The Adriatic Sea - its waters break on the coasts of Croatia, Montenegro and partly Albania. In the north, the cliffs approach the very edge of the sea, in the central part there are many bays and bays with a wide variety of beaches, in the south tourists will be pampered by sandy beaches. There are many islands in its waters, especially in the territory adjacent to Croatia. Among the largest and most famous islands are Hvar, Krk, and Sveti Nikola.
• The Ionian Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea. The coast is shared between Albania and Greece. The water area is also rich in islands, mainly belonging to the territory of Greece. The shores of Greece are also washed by the Aegean Sea and the south-southern part of the Cretan Sea.
• The Sea of ​​Marmara is a small sea located between the European and Asian coasts of Turkey. It got its name from the name of the island in its waters, the depths of which are rich in marble.
• The Black Sea is a resort area in Bulgaria.

Climate

On the coast the climate is subtropical or subtropical Mediterranean. On the southern and western coasts, the average summer temperature is 26-28 °C, and tends to increase every year. The sea warms up to comfortable temperatures of 22-24 °C by the second half of June. And the warmest months are in August and September, when the water temperature reaches 25-27°C and is almost equal to the air temperature.

Winters are cool with average temperatures ranging from 5°C in the north to 10°C in the south. On the west coast, storms rage in the autumn-winter period, the weather is windy and rainy. Local residents call the period “depressive.”

In the central part of the Balkan Peninsula the climate is temperate continental. The average temperature is: 20-22 °C in summer and -3°C in winter. Altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed in the mountains.

Sights of the Balkan Peninsula

Ancient history and picturesque nature have made this region rich in attractions.

• Athens is the capital of the country and the oldest city with an abundance of historical sites. The Athenian Acropolis, the Temple of Athena or the Parthenon, the Erechtheion Temple, and the Temple of Nike Apteros are located here.
• The Peloponnese is a peninsula in southern Greece, where the ancient cities of Corinth and Epidaurus are worthy of attention. In the first there are: Olympia, with the most ancient historical monuments; ruins of the temples of Apollo and Athena, with the remains of the acropolis; the fortress city of Mycenae, according to legend, founded by the God Perseus himself. The second one amazes with its splendid landscape, where many castles and monasteries lie between the peaks.
• Bay of Kotor in Montenegro. In addition to the fact that the bay itself is the deepest in Europe and has the second largest area after the Norwegian fjords, there are many attractions located on its shores and islands. The ancient port city of Kotor, which is still visited today by snow-white liners; the pirate city of Perast; the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary on an artificial island created from sunken ships; St. George's Island or Dead Island, where not a single person lives; Blue caves, amazing with their water.
• Dubrovnik is a city in Croatia. Founded in the 16th century and having survived many sieges, it was completely destroyed during the Croatian-Serbian conflict. And only by 2005, with the support of UNESCO, it was possible to completely restore the historical part of the city.
• Plitvice Lakes Park is one of the natural reserves of the Balkan Peninsula. A cascade of waterfalls and lakes of karst origin with emerald water will not leave anyone indifferent. Tourists are offered three routes, the most difficult of which climbs to a height of 72 meters to the Sastavtsi waterfall.

Plitvice Lakes Park

Interesting facts about the Balkan Peninsula

• Agriculture originated on the Balkan Peninsula.
• The laziest people live in Montenegro. They even have their own 10 commandments.
• In Albania, teddy bears are held in special esteem; they are believed to ward off evil spirits. That's why colorful toys hang from almost every window.
• In Kotor, in one of the shoe stores on Cat Square, there lives a cat who knows how to smile. He gets a small coin for smiling.
• If in the markets of Croatia or Montenegro they tell you “not enough”, don’t be scared and reach for your wallet. Smile and wish him luck. You were simply thanked.

Results

Most countries of the Balkan Peninsula experienced crisis and war in 1991-99. We were able to return to peaceful life, restore destroyed cities and begin a new stage of development, focusing on the development of tourism and services. Today the Balkans attract a huge number of history and beach lovers.

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The formation and fall of the Western Bulgarian kingdom and the era of Greek domination 963-1186.

Since Western Bulgaria was not affected fighting, from Silistria (Dorostol) it was there that the Bulgarian Patriarch Damian went after the victory of the Greeks, stopping first in Sofia and then going to Ohrid in Macedonia, which the traitor Shishman made his capital. Western Bulgaria included Macedonia and parts of Thessaly, Albania, Southern and Eastern Serbia and the westernmost regions of modern Bulgaria. It was here that numerous anti-Greek uprisings began after the death of Emperor John I Tzimisces in 976. The uprising culminated during the reign of Samuel (977–1014), one of Shishman's sons. This ruler was gifted and energetic, but also inhuman and unprincipled, as his position required. He began by killing all his relatives and some members of the nobility who did not support his decision to restore the absolute monarchy. The Holy See recognized him as king in 981, and he began a war with the Greeks - the only possible activity for any self-respecting Bulgarian ruler. The emperor at that time was Basil II (976–1025), who was brave and patriotic, but young and inexperienced. During his first campaigns, Samuel achieved everything he wanted: in 985 he conquered Northern Bulgaria, in 986 - Thessaly and in the same year defeated Vasily II near Sofia. He later conquered Albania and the southern regions of Serbia and the modern territories of Montenegro and Herzegovina. In 996, he began to threaten Thessaloniki, but first decided to put his army on ships and make an expedition against the Peloponnese. Here the Greek (Eastern Roman) commander, following him, unexpectedly attacked him and defeated him. Samuel and his son barely escaped with their lives.

Happiness began to betray him in 996, the Greeks again occupied Northern Bulgaria in 999 and regained Thessaly and part of Macedonia. Almost every year Vasily II attacked the Bulgarians, the country lay in ruins and could no longer resist. The final disaster struck in 1014, when Basil II completely defeated his treacherous enemy in a mountain pass near Strumica in Macedonia. Samuel fled to Prilep. But when he saw his returned 15 thousand. army, all the soldiers of which, after being captured, were blinded by the Greeks, he died from the blow. Basil II, known as the Bulgarian Slayer, went from victory to victory and finally, in 1016, occupied the Bulgarian capital Ohrid. Western Bulgaria ended its existence, repeating the fate of Eastern Bulgaria that fell in 972. The rest of the royal family followed the emperor to the Bosporus, to an honorable conclusion. The triumph of Constantinople was complete.

Bulgaria, as an independent state, did not exist from 1018 to 1186. Vasily II, although cruel, was not in the least degree a tyrant towards the Bulgarians, and treated the conquered territory more as a protectorate than as his possession. But after his death, Greek rule became more difficult. The Bulgarian Patriarchate (existed since 972 in Ohrid) was reduced to an archbishopric; and in 1025 the see was occupied by the Greeks, who hastened to remove the Bulgarians from all important posts in the diocese. Many noble Bulgarians were sent to Constantinople, where they were given honorary titles, which should have made them forget about further resistance. In the 11th century The Balkan Peninsula was often invaded by the Pechenegs and Cumans (Cumans), whom both the Greeks and the Bulgarians called to their aid. Their raids did not always bring benefit to the inviting party. Barbarians tended to stay for long periods of time and deal a lot of damage. Often, some of them settled as unwanted settlers.

The ethnic map of the Balkan Peninsula thus became increasingly variegated. The colonies of Armenians and Vlachs founded by imperial decrees were added to the nomadic settlers. The final touch was put on the map by the Normans who invaded here in 1081 and the crusaders who crossed the peninsula in 1096. The widespread robberies on the part of the latter led to the fact that the inhabitants of the Balkans could hardly be sympathetic to the cause of the participants in the Crusades. One of the consequences of all these turbulent events and the heavy oppression of the Greeks was the rapid spread of the Bogumil heresy. She became a refuge for feelings of patriotism, in her he found his way out. Emperor Alexius I Komnenos (reigned 1081–1118) brutally persecuted the Bogumils, which only led to the growth of their ranks and the rapid advancement of the doctrine from their center to the west into Serbia.

The reason for the final overthrow of the Bulgarian monarchy was undoubtedly national disunity and the lack of an organizing principle. Lasting success could only be achieved by an extremely gifted ruler who could put an end to the centrifugal tendencies of the feudal nobility; Simeon and Samuel were a clear example of this. Another unfavorable factor was the Byzantine influence on the Church and the state, the lack of a permanent large army, the spread of the anarchic Bogumil heresy and, of course, the fact that the majority of the Slavic population did not want to participate in conquests and fight for national greatness.

The rise and fall of the second Bulgarian kingdom 1186-1258.

From 1186 to 1258 Bulgaria experienced a temporary revival. Its brevity was more than compensated for by the many significant events that happened during this period. Greek oppression and violent exactions led to a Bulgarian uprising, the center of which was Tarnovo on the Yantra River in Northern Bulgaria. It was a natural stronghold of strategic importance, which allowed control of several of the most important passes of the Balkan Mountains. This uprising coincided with the growing weakening of the Eastern Roman Empire, which, surrounded on all sides by enemies - Cumans (Cumans), Saracens (Arabs), Turks and Normans, was experiencing a severe crisis that preceded its collapse. The uprising was led by two brothers who were Wallachian shepherds. The rebels were blessed by Archbishop Vasily, who crowned one of the brothers, Ivan Asen, as king in Tarnovo in 1186. Their initial actions against the Greeks were not successful. But, having secured support from the Serbs under the leadership of Stefan Nemanja in 1188 and the Crusaders in 1189, they managed to somewhat improve their position. However, the Greeks still had enough strength, and Bulgarian victories alternated with defeats. In 1196, John Asen I was killed, and after long internal strife and a series of murders, he was succeeded by his relative Kaloyan, or Ivan the Handsome. This cruel and unprincipled, although decisive, ruler soon put an end to all enemies within the country and in eight years achieved such success in foreign policy that Bulgaria almost restored its former borders. Moreover, he restored relations with Rome, much to the displeasure of the Greeks, and as a result of negotiations, Pope Innocent III recognized Kaloyan as the king of the Bulgarians and Vlachs (according to Villehardouin), and Basil as the ecclesiastical head of the country. In 1204, celebrations of the coronation of Kaloyan and the dedication of Vasily as papal legate took place in Tarnovo. The French, who settled in Constantinople during the 4th Crusade, recklessly, instead of becoming allies, became enemies of Kaloyan, and he, with the help of the Cumans (Cumans), inflicted several defeats on them, capturing Baldwin I and brutally dealing with him. But in 1207 life path Kaloyan's life was cut short - he was killed during the siege of Thessaloniki by one of his commanders, who had a close relationship with his wife. After 11 years of anarchy, John Asen P. became king. During his reign, which lasted from 1218 to 1241, Bulgaria reached the pinnacle of its power. He was the most enlightened of all the rulers of the country, and he led not only successful wars with its external enemies, but also put an end to strife in the country itself. The prerequisites for development have reappeared Agriculture and trade. The king encouraged the founding of numerous schools and monasteries. He adhered to the traditions of his family and therefore made Tarnovo the capital of his country, which under him grew and was decorated with new buildings.

Constantinople at this time was famous for three Greek emperors and one French. First of all, John Asen II got rid of one of them - Theodore, who proclaimed himself basileus in 1223 in Ohrid. Following this, he annexed to his dominions all of Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly and Epirus and made his brother Manuel, who married one of his daughters, co-ruler with residence in Thessaloniki. Another of his daughters married Stefan Vladislav, who was king of Serbia in 1233–1243, and the third in 1235 became the wife of Theodore, the son of Emperor John III, who ruled in Nicaea. Previously, Emperor Baldwin II the Younger sought the hand of this daughter, and French feudal lords even came to Constantinople for her, but preference was still given to the daughter of the King of Jerusalem. John Asen II was deeply hurt by the refusal, which prompted him to draw closer to the Greeks, with whom he entered into an alliance in 1234. John Asen II and his ally Emperor John III were, however, utterly defeated by the French under the walls of Constantinople in 1236, and the Bulgarian ruler, not wanting to see the Greeks reassert their power in Constantinople, began to doubt his decision to enter into an alliance with them . Other Bulgarian kings were also unprincipled, but all foreign policy this king was based on betrayal. John Asen II betrayed the Greeks and entered into an alliance in 1237 with the French. Pope Gregory IX, a great Greekphobe, threatened him with excommunication. The Bulgarian king forced his daughter to leave her Greek husband. The next year he again defected to the Greeks; then fear of the pope and his brother-in-law the king of Hungary pushed him to go over to the side of Baldwin II, to whom he came to help in the fight against the Greeks with a large army in 1239 in Thrace. While waging a war with the Greeks there with varying success, he learned of the death of his wife and eldest son from the plague and immediately returned to Tarnovo, ending the war and returning his daughter to her lonely husband. This monarch, easily adaptable to changing circumstances, died of natural causes in 1241. The three rulers of his family who occupied the throne after his death and whose reigns spanned the period 1241–1258 managed to undo everything that their predecessor had done. One after another, provinces were lost and internal anarchy grew. This famous dynasty came to an inglorious end in 1258, when its last representative was killed by his nobles, and from that time Bulgaria was only a shadow of its former self.

Serbian rule and final collapse 1258-1393.

It can be said that, starting in 1258, Bulgaria continued to decline until it finally ceased to exist as a state in 1393. Throughout this period, Bulgaria never had its say in deciding the fate of the Balkan Peninsula. Due to the fact that no ruler was able to restore order to the disintegrating country, there was constant rivalry between local princelings, an unceasing series of marriages concluded for political reasons, and murders, conspiracies and rebellions of the feudal nobility. In addition, the country's borders were repeatedly redrawn by warring principalities, which tore the fabric of the Bulgarian state apart. From the point of view of foreign politicians, a characteristic feature of this period is the virtual disappearance of Bulgaria's independence to the benefit of the surrounding states, which alternately exerted their influence on the country. It is especially worth paying attention to the dominant position at this time on the Balkan Peninsula of Serbia.

The Serb Constantine, whose grandfather was Stefan Nemanja, occupied the Bulgarian throne from 1258 to 1277; he was married to the granddaughter of John Asenya P. After the fall of the Latin Empire in Constantinople in 1261, the Hungarians, who became the masters of Transylvania, entered into an alliance with the Greeks against Constantine; the latter called for help from the Tatars from the southern Russian steppes, who were at the height of their power, and won. However, as a result of his diplomacy, the Tatars henceforth played an important role in the Bulgarian civil strife. Then the daughter of the Greek emperor became the second wife of Constantine, and thus Constantinople gained influence on the internal affairs of the Bulgarian state. Constantine was succeeded by upstart rulers, over whom the Serbian king Urosh II (1282–1321) won a series of victories, who conquered Macedonia from the Bulgarians. In 1285, the Tatar-Mongols of the Golden Horde carried out a devastating raid on Hungary and Bulgaria. But the main danger threatened from the south, where dark clouds gathered, later falling into a stormy downpour on the peninsula. In 1308, the Turks appeared on the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara, and in 1326 they strengthened themselves in Brusa (from that time Bursa). From 1295 to 1322, Bulgaria was ruled by Svyatoslav, a nobleman from Vidin. He was untroubled by the Greeks and now saw the threat from the Turks; he managed to maintain order in the country, to which his subjects were not accustomed. After his death in 1322, chaos reigned again. One of the rulers who replaced him married the daughter of the Serbian king Uros II, but unexpectedly entered into an alliance with the Greeks against Stefan Uros III and sent his wife to Serbia. The Greeks and Bulgarians, unlikely allies, were defeated by the Serbs at Kyustendil in Macedonia in 1330.

From 1331 to 1365, Bulgaria was ruled by John Alexander, a noble nobleman of Tatar origin, whose sister became the wife of the greatest ruler of Serbia, Stefan Dusan. Moreover, John Alexander recognized Stephen as his overlord, and from that time Bulgaria became a vassal of Serbia. Meanwhile, the Turkish storm was gaining strength. In 1354, Osman I's son Orhan crossed the Hellespont, and in 1366 Murad I made Adrianople, which he captured in 1362, his capital. After the death of John Alexander in 1365, the Hungarians invaded Northern Bulgaria, and the king's successor called on the Turks for help in the fight against them, as well as the Greeks. This was the beginning of the end. The Serbs, taking advantage of the absence of the Sultan in Asia Minor, launched an offensive, but were defeated near Adrianople in 1371 by the Turks, who captured Sofia in 1382. In response, the Serbs entered into a grand alliance with the South Slavs, which Bulgaria refused to join, but after a brief success against the Turks in 1387, the Serbs were defeated by the Turks at the famous Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Meanwhile, in 1388 the Turks occupied Nikopol on the Danube, and in 1393 destroyed the Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo, sending Patriarch Euthymius into exile in Macedonia. So the state of Bulgaria passed into the hands of the Turks, and the Bulgarian church went to the Greeks. Many Bulgarians converted to Islam, and their descendants, Pomaks, or Bulgarian Muslims, live in the country to this day. When Romania was conquered in 1394, and the Hungarian king Sigismund, who hastily assembled an anti-Turkish crusade in Western Europe, was defeated at Nicopolis in 1396, the Turkish conquest became complete and final, although the Battle of Varna had not yet occurred (in 1444 ) and Constantinople had not yet been captured (in 1453).

Turkish rule and liberation 1393-1878

We can rightfully say that from 1393 to 1877 Bulgaria had no history, but this fact can hardly be called happy. National existence was completely suppressed, and what was understood in those days as national identity was in oblivion. It is well known, and many people in our time admit it, that the Turks have many remarkable qualities among other peoples, they are distinguished by religious fervor and military passion. At the same time, it cannot be denied that, from an aesthetic point of view, one can hardly say much good in praise of Muslim civilization. Who doesn't prefer the minarets of Istanbul and Edirne (Turkish name for Adrianople) to the architecture of Budapest, the famous ideal of Christian Southeastern Europe? However, it cannot be disputed that the Ottoman peace brought prosperity to those who came within its sphere of influence (albeit until their identity was dissolved in the religion of their conquerors).

The peoples conquered by the Turks faced an alternative - slavery or Turkification. Those who could not accept either one or the other were forced to emigrate or, finding themselves outside the law, go to the mountains to become bandits. The Turks dominated the European peoples of the Balkan Peninsula for five centuries, and from the Turkish point of view this was undoubtedly a brilliant achievement. This was significantly more than what the ancient Greeks and Romans achieved; and from a humanistic point of view, there is no doubt that during the five centuries of Turkish rule on the Balkan Peninsula less human blood was shed than during the five centuries of Christian rule before the Turkish invasion. Indeed, it would be difficult to shed more of it. It is also a pure illusion to think of the Turks solely as brutal and cruel people; they are good-natured and benevolent, like other people. Only when they were overcome by military and religious passion did they become more ruthless and ferocious in comparison with others.

However, from the point of view of the Slavs of Bulgaria and Serbia, Turkish rule was synonymous with the concept of "suffocation". If the Turks were in reality what their ardent admirers think of them, the history of the Balkan Peninsula in the 19th century. would have turned out differently and would have been different from what it was in reality, namely: an endless series of anti-Turkish uprisings.

Of all the Balkan peoples, the Bulgarians experienced the greatest oppression. The Greeks, thanks to their omnipresence, their brains and money, were soon able to make the Turkish wind turn the wings of their mills; the Romanians were to some extent protected by the Danube and distance from Constantinople; The Serbs were also spared Turkish outbursts, and the inaccessibility of most of the country gave them some protection. Bulgaria was completely destroyed, and its population, already far from homogeneous, experienced strong influence numerous Turkish and Tatar settlements.

For all these reasons, Bulgaria was the last Balkan state to gain freedom. And for these same reasons it was least susceptible to prejudice and lacked what is called national preference and internal cohesion, and therefore the heterogeneity of the nation made it energetic and enterprising. The attitude of the Turks towards Christians was always the same; generally speaking, it worsened as the Sultan's power weakened. In the 15th century Christians were given relative freedom to peacefully practice their religion and perform rituals. But starting from the 16th century. control by the Sultan, as well as the power of the center, weakened, anarchy intensified in the Ottoman (Ottoman) Empire, and the power of local rulers became more despotic.

However, the Muslim conquerors were not the only enemies and oppressors of the Bulgarians. The role played by the Greeks in Bulgaria during Turkish rule was as important as the Turkish factor. The contempt with which the Turks treated the Christians and their religion was so great that they wisely left the Church under the direct control of the Christians, knowing that they would be mired in endless strife. From 1393 to 1767, the Bulgarians were under the jurisdiction of the Greek-Bulgarian Patriarchate, centered in Ohrid, all posts in which, from the highest to the lowest, were purchased from the Turkish administration at exorbitant and ever-increasing prices. The Phanariot Greeks (so called because they came from the Phanar quarter of Constantinople) were the only ones who could afford to occupy the highest positions; the church was ultimately controlled by Constantinople. In 1767 the independent patriarchates were abolished, and from that time on religious control by the Greeks was as comprehensive as that of the Turks. The Greeks did everything they could to destroy the last national Bulgarian traits that were preserved in the Church. And this explains the fact, which should never be forgotten and which has its origin in the distant past, but most clearly revealed at this time, that the personal hatred of the Greeks and Bulgarians for each other was always stronger than their collective hatred for the Turks.

Since 1472, when the Russian Tsar John III married Sophia Palaiologos, the niece of the last Greek emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, Russia began to consider itself the patron of Eastern Christians, the defender of the Orthodox Church and the direct heir to the glory and prestige of Constantinople. However, it was only in the 18th century, when the Russian state became stronger, that Balkan Christians received protection and the role of Constantinople needed to be reconsidered. Russian influence first appeared in Romania after the conclusion of the Treaty of Küçük-Kaynarci in 1774 (which ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774). Only the expected war with Napoleon in 1812 prevented the Russians from expanding their territory south of the Danube, which their border had already reached. Serbia became partially free in 1826, and Greece gained full independence in 1830, after Russian troops, having defeated the Turks, occupied part of Bulgaria and advanced as far as Adrianople. Located closer to Constantinople and not oppressed by it as much as before, Bulgaria had to bide its time. Attempts to raise an uprising at this time were suppressed in the most bloody manner, which led to mass emigration of Bulgarians to Bessarabia. The free territories remaining after their departure were occupied by Kurds and Tatars. The Crimean War (1853–1856) and the short-sighted policy of support for Turkey by Western European powers prevented the achievement of Russia's goals. Moldavia and Wallachia in 1856 left Russian control in the form of a semi-protectorate, which had been in place for a long time, and in 1861 united into the single state of Romania. In 1866, the German prince Karl of Hohenzollern arrived in the country and began to rule. This was the first manifestation of German influence in the Middle East, although Romania at this time still recognized the authority of the Sultan.

In the first half of the 19th century, an active process of cultural revival was underway in Bulgaria, which was supported by wealthy Bulgarian merchants of Bucharest and Odessa. In 1829, a book about the history of Bulgaria, written by a native of this country, was published in Moscow. In 1835, the first school was organized in Bulgaria, and others soon followed. It should be remembered that at that time not only was nothing known in other countries about Bulgaria and the people inhabiting it, but it was necessary to tell the Bulgarians themselves who they were and what kind of people they represented. The population of Bulgaria was exclusively peasant; there was no upper and middle class, “intelligentsia,” or representatives of other professions in the country. Enlightened Bulgarians lived in other countries; the church was in the hands of the Greeks, who competed with the Turks in the oppression of the Bulgarian nation.

The two committees in Odessa and Bucharest, which promoted the ideas of enlightenment and liberation of Bulgaria, were different in composition and goals. Members of the former placed greater emphasis on educational and religious reform, intending to use it to achieve a gradual and peaceful restoration of their country. Representatives of the second committee wanted the immediate declaration of Bulgarian independence, and were ready to resort to violent and even, if necessary, military action.

The church issue was resolved first. In 1856, the Porte (Ottoman Empire) promised to carry out reforms in the church: to allow the appointment of Bulgarian bishops and to recognize the Bulgarian language in church and school. But these promises were not fulfilled, and the Bulgarians took matters into their own hands. In 1860 they refused to further recognize the Patriarch of Constantinople. In the same year, the Bulgarian Church attempted to come under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church, but due to opposition from Russia, this attempt was unsuccessful. Tensions over the church issue grew, and in 1870, concerned about this, the Turks allowed the establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate. The Bulgarian Church became independent and national, and the residence of the exarch was to be in Constantinople (Bulgaria continued to remain a Turkish province). The Greeks, aware of the blow this would cause to their supremacy, were able to postpone the ill-fated day for a short time, but in 1872 the exarch triumphantly settled in Constantinople, where he remained until 1908.

Meanwhile, revolutionary protests began to grow, but they were always severely suppressed. The most famous uprising broke out in 1875, led by Istanbulov, the future dictator. This uprising was organized in support of the uprising in Montenegro, Herzegovina and Bosnia, which occurred in the same year. As a result, both this performance and a similar one in 1876 ended in the notorious massacre of the Bulgarians. Indignation arose in Europe, and joint statements were immediately made to Constantinople. Midhat Pasha disarmed his opponents by temporarily adopting the British constitution in Turkey. But there is no need to say that the situation in Bulgaria did not change for the better as a result. Russia, however, continued its preparations, and when Turkey refused to stop military operations against Montenegro, on April 24 (12th according to the Art.), 1877, Emperor Alexander II, whose patience had run out, declared the beginning of war. Charles, the ruler of Romania, supported the Russian emperor. Thus, he hoped, his country, still a vassal of Turkey, would achieve final liberation and become a kingdom. The beginning of the war was favorable for the Russians and Romanians, who were soon joined by a large number of Bulgarian rebels. Turkish forces were scattered throughout the peninsula. The committee in Bucharest was transformed into a provisional government, but the Russians, who intended to liberate their country, naturally had to concentrate temporarily in their hands administration, and they did not recognize him. The Turks, alarmed by the first victories of the Russians, placed the best commanders and selected troops under their banners and defeated the Russians near Plevna in July. However, in August the Turks failed to drive the Russians out of the important and famous Shipka Pass; the Turks were demoralized and their resistance quickly weakened. The Russians, aided by the Bulgarians and Romanians, fought with the greatest courage all summer. In December they took Plevna after a three-month siege, in January 1878 they occupied Sofia (December 23, O.S.) and Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and had already approached Constantinople itself.

The Turks were on their last legs, and in March (February 19, O.S.), 1878 in Adrianople, Ignatiev dictated the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which the Bulgarian Principality was formed, under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan. It extended from the Danube to the Aegean Sea and from the Black Sea to Albania, including all of Macedonia. The Turks were left with the territory from Adrianople to Constantinople, Chalkidiki and the city of Thessaloniki. Bulgaria was restored within the borders of the state of Tsar Simeon, who ruled 950 years ago.

This agreement, taking into account the ethnic aspect, was quite fair; however, he worried other powers, especially Great Britain and Germany, who suspected Russia of intending to establish its hegemony in the Balkans. It was believed that if the agreement was accepted, it would cancel out all the plans of Greece and Serbia. Instead, in July 1878, the Berlin Treaty was concluded, the initiators of which were Bismarck, who defended the interests of Austria-Hungary (as expected), and Lord Salisbury, a champion of the interests of Turkey (which was short-sighted). According to its terms, Bulgaria was divided into three parts. These were Northern Bulgaria, located between the Danube and the Balkans, which became an autonomous principality dependent on Turkey; Southern Bulgaria, quaintly called Eastern Rumelia (the Turks called the entire Balkan Peninsula Rumelia), became an autonomous province of Turkey under a Christian governor appointed by the Porte (Ottoman Empire); Macedonia and Thrace were left under Turkish rule, and Dobruja, between the Danube and the Black Sea, was annexed to Romania. Nobody defeated the Russian troops near Plevna. There were unsuccessful attacks by Russian troops on the detachment of Osman Pasha blocked in the Plevna region - on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 26–31 (September 7–12). After this, Russian troops (with the participation of the Romanians) began to blockade Plevna, and after an unsuccessful breakout attempt on November 27–28 (December 9–10), Osman Pasha, along with 43 thousand of his soldiers, capitulated.

Austria-Hungary, which did not participate in the war, received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina with a Slavic population that desperately resisted the new enslavers (it was here, in Sarajevo, on June 28, 1914, that the fatal shots were fired, which became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War). Russia returned the southwestern Danube section of Bessarabia (Romania received Dobruja in return). In Transcaucasia, Batum, Kare and Ardagan with their districts were assigned to Russia.

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