History of the Balkan countries. History of the Balkans

Chamber electric furnaces with a rolling hearth SNOL are designed for heat treatment (heating, hardening, firing) of metals, ceramics and other materials in an air environment up to a temperature of 1250°C. Their main advantage is that the tray rolls out of the oven, unloading and loading is done quickly and in comfortable conditions. The chamber volume is fully used. Loading and unloading of the rolling hearth is carried out outside the furnace; For heavy products, lifting devices can be used. It is possible to use several roll-out hearths, which will virtually eliminate furnace downtime. Simultaneously with one roll-out hearth being in the furnace, the other is loaded. You can roll out the hearth at 500°C (short-term up to 1000°C), saving time and energy. The productivity of the electric furnace is 1.5 - 2.5 times higher, and the energy consumption is 10 - 20% less than that of an ordinary chamber electric furnace of the same volume. Good temperature uniformity throughout the entire volume of the working chamber. The heaters are located on the door, rear and side walls of the chamber for electric furnaces SNOL 400/12-VP and SNOL 700/12-VP, and for electric furnaces SNOL 500/12-VP and SNOL 1000/12-VP the heaters are also located in the roll-out hearth.

The temperature control of electric furnaces is carried out by digital microprocessor temperature controllers, allowing for heat treatment with high accuracy according to a given program. Serially produced electric furnaces are equipped with two-section regulators. On individual orders, electric furnaces can be equipped with models of regulators that make it possible to implement a more complex temperature heat treatment process in automatic mode.

The scope of application of electric furnaces with bogie hearths is quite wide, namely: traditional heat treatment of metals, sintering of ceramics, etc.

Heat treatment of metals, ceramics and other materials in air up to a temperature of 1250°C.

Chamber electric furnaces with bogie hearth - technical characteristics

Electric furnaces with retractable hearth and bell-type furnaces

Control questions

1. What kind of furnaces are called shaft furnaces?

2. What are the design features of the muffle shafts in the furnace and their purpose?

3. What type of part are shaft furnaces used for and how are they loaded?

4. How is the furnace lid sealed?

5. What temperature levels are shaft furnaces produced in?

6. Which shaft furnaces are classified as low-temperature?

7. How is the fan installation location selected?

8. How is the directed movement of the protective (working) gas carried out in the working space of the furnace?

9. What is the calorific design of heaters?

10. How are heaters secured to the lining wall?

11. What are the methods for opening and closing the cover of a shaft furnace?

12. What is a muffle, what other names for muffle do you know?

13. The purpose of the muffle and how is it installed in the furnace?

14. How is the working gas supplied to the furnace chamber during chemical treatment?

15. What power do shaft furnaces have, what does the power depend on?

16. Which furnaces are classified as medium-temperature furnaces? design features?

17. Purpose of low-temperature and medium-temperature furnaces?

18. Design features of SSHTSM furnaces?

19. Purpose of aggregated shaft furnaces?

General industrial EPPDs are effectively used in the primary (single and small-scale) production of relatively large products, such as blanks of large gears, shafts, housings, rolls of metal tape and others, allowing flexible processing of dissimilar products. In conditions of single and small-scale production, it is often necessary to anneal (with a long cycle time) single parts with a relatively large mass or assemble large cages. In these cases, it is convenient to use furnaces with a rolling hearth, in which the entire hearth area is available for loading and unloading operations, which allows the use of universal loading equipment for loading and unloading. The hearth of these furnaces is mounted on a trolley and can be rolled out of a fixed chamber. For annealing and normalization of individual large products, bundles or rolls of sheets, vertical furnaces with a fixed hearth (stand) and a portable chamber (hood) are also used - bell-type electric furnaces.

Due to the ease of use of electric furnaces of these designs, they are used in various industries industry.

They belong to low- and medium-temperature batch furnaces. They are used for annealing or tempering large parts that cannot be loaded into the furnace manually, i.e. loading into the furnace is difficult. They are a chamber without a bottom and often without a front wall, standing on columns and a trolley on rollers, on which the hearth and the front wall of the furnace are mounted, moving on rails manually, using an electric drive or an electromechanical winch. The cart moves out from under the furnace, parts are loaded onto it with a crane, after which it drives under the chamber, and the furnace is turned on to heat. After the end of the annealing cycle, the cart again leaves from under the furnace and is unloaded.

Heating elements in these furnaces are usually installed on all walls and in the hearth, and sometimes on the roof for more uniform heating.

The hearth and front wall heaters are powered using flexible cables or blade contacts. Such furnaces are economical only with large charges; they reach a capacity of up to 100 tons or more, with a power of up to 3000...5000 kW

During annealing, the charge is cooled together with the furnace, lasting several days, and all the heat accumulated by the furnace masonry is lost. If the product can be cooled in air, then two rolling hearths are used, which are inserted into the furnace in turn. In this case, one is in the heating cycle in the furnace, the other cools down, is unloaded and reloaded outside the furnace.

Electrothermal equipment factories produce a number of standard sizes of furnaces with a sliding hearth for low operating temperatures (from 250 to 700 °C) and a number of units for nominal temperatures of 1000...1250 °C ( table us. 64). Electric furnaces with a nominal temperature of 350 °C are designed for drying and low-temperature processing. Designs are produced with working space dimensions of 1000x1250x1250 and 1600x2500x1600 mm, rated power of 75 and 300 kW, respectively, and maximum cage weight of 400 and 2800 kg. Chamber electric furnaces with a retractable hearth are used for heating large-sized products for heat treatment.

Low-temperature furnaces usually have roof fans that help intensify convective heat transfer in the working chambers relatively big size. Low temperature oven indices:

Medium-temperature furnaces with a roll-out bottom are not equipped with fans.

When the hearth is rolled out, the hot walls of the furnace chamber radiate onto the foundation, so it is made of refractory concrete or lined with refractory bricks.

In combustion furnaces with a retractable hearth type TDO, operating on combustion natural gas or fuel oil, heating is carried out in a normal atmosphere at a final metal heating temperature of 1150 °C with a maximum charge weighing up to 300 tons and with an artificial atmosphere (with a muffle) at a final metal heating temperature of 900 °C with a maximum charge weight of up to 12 tons.

The drawer under the furnace moves along a rail track using an electric drive mounted on the hearth frame. Pull-out under stoves small size carries part of the front wall - a door covering the end opening of the chamber. The chamber design, characteristic of low-temperature furnaces, is a double casing, in the cavity of which thermal insulation is placed from mineral wool(Fig. 3.22).

Temperature exchange in furnaces is carried out due to forced air circulation; With the help of fans located in the upper part of the chamber and guide screens, a gas flow is created through heaters installed on the side walls and then through the load. These designs use heaters in the form of wire spirals, while other low-temperature bogie hearth furnaces use tubular electric heaters.

In furnaces at 250...350 °C, regulation of air exchange is provided using a damper installed on the outlet pipe and manually controlled to regulate the amount of air ejected and sucked into the chamber. When drying organic substances containing explosive volatile compounds, it is necessary, through controlled air exchange, to carefully maintain the concentration of these compounds not higher than the limits specified in the technical documentation of electric furnaces.

“The powder keg of Europe”, Balkanization, Yugoslav wars, Albanian crime - the Balkans have a bad historical reputation, which is actively reinforced by cinema and the media. This has a negative impact on tourism in the region, but in fact the Balkans are a traveler’s paradise. Here you can find everything you need for a perfect trip: stunning nature, interesting sights different eras, amazing cuisine, but most importantly - hospitable and kind people. In this introduction we will tell you where exactly the Balkans are, who lives in Balkan countries oh, and how things are there now.

The Balkans are considered the “powder keg of Europe”, a place where there are five seasons – winter, spring, summer, autumn and war. WITH light hand Churchill calls the Balkans “the soft underbelly of Europe,” which indicates the instability and vulnerability of this region. For several centuries, political crises and interethnic clashes regularly occurred there, after which bloody wars began. In the heart of the Balkans - Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia - the First World War began with the fatal shot of Gavrilo Princip at Franz Ferdinand.

The term “Balkanization” is associated with the history of the region - it appeared when the territory of the Ottoman Empire on the peninsula began to disintegrate into separate states at war with each other. In the nineties, when Yugoslavia was being fragmented, the term became a household word - now it means any fragmentation and land surveying.

Myth about endless conflicts gave rise to a stereotypical idea of ​​the “dangers” of traveling in these countries inhabited by “ardent nationalists”, but now everything is calm in the Balkans.

What are the Balkans and where are they located?

The very origin of the name “Balkans” is as confusing and contradictory as the history of the region. Numerous legends trace the etymology of the word “Balkans” to Latin, Celtic, Slavic, Turkic and Persian roots. One of the versions is the origin of the name from the Turkic words “bal” (honey) and “kan” (blood). This version, for example, gave the title to Angelina Jolie’s film “In the Land of Blood and Honey,” which tells the story of the love of a Serbian soldier and a Bosnian girl against the backdrop of military conflict.

The word "Balkan" is indeed of Turkic origin, but means "mountains covered with forests." Thanks to this etymology, some territories far from the peninsula also have similar names. For example, the Balkan vilayat in Turkmenistan, with its center in the city of Balkanabad, was named after the Great Balkhan mountain range. Even in Moscow in the 17th century, there was a Balkan area, which was “a valley between the forest and the highlands.”

The Stara Planina mountain range on the territory of Bulgaria and Serbia has been called the Balkan Mountains since the 14th century. In the 19th century, the Balkan Peninsula was named after these mountains, by analogy with the Iberian and Apennine peninsulas. The legality of uniting this peninsula into one region and its northern border long years have been the subject of debate.

One day, during the first lesson of a course on integration and disintegration in the Balkans, the professor handed us maps and asked us to draw the border of the Balkans. There were about 25 of us students and only a couple of people drew similar boundaries.

The most extended interpretation of the northern border comes from the famous Austrian diplomat Clemens von Metternich, who once stated that the Balkans begin at Rennweg, a street in Vienna leading to the southeast.

Geographically, the Danube and Sava rivers and their tributaries are considered the northern border of the peninsula. In this case, the region even includes some Italian and Romanian territories. From another point of view, highlighting Balkan Peninsula in a geographical sense is unjustified, and the Balkans can only be a historical or political category. The historical border of the Balkans is the limits of Ottoman rule in Europe. This approach excludes Slovenia and Croatia from the region, which in a political sense, as members of the former Yugoslavia, are part of it. The Balkans are characterized by the discrepancy between different interpretations of their borders, as well as the desperate reluctance of countries to be considered “Balkan” and throwing this epithet at each other. Due to negative images and stereotypes about the Balkans, the neutral term "South-Eastern Europe" is increasingly used to refer to the region.

Who's who in the Balkans?

In an ethnic sense, the Balkans resemble a multi-colored mosaic. Due to rapid ethnogenesis and constant demarcation, the number of ethnic groups is off the charts. At the same time, the discrepancy between state, linguistic and religious borders creates the ground for interethnic clashes.

Most countries in the region are inhabited by South Slavs. The southeastern group includes Bulgarians and Macedonians, both of whom are predominantly Orthodox. Bulgarians consider the Macedonian language to be a dialect of Bulgarian. In the southwestern group, interethnic relations are even more complicated. Croats profess Catholicism, Serbs and Montenegrins profess Orthodoxy, Bosniaks profess Islam. They speak languages ​​that allow them to understand each other, but the struggle for linguistic self-determination is serious. Apart from grammatical and phonetic nuances, the difference between Serbian and Croatian rests on the issue of borrowings. The Croatian language is dominated by Slavic roots due to the policy of language purism. The “Balkanization” of the language was not limited to the collapse of Serbo-Croatian. The Bosnian language, which features a larger number of Orientalisms, received official status. After gaining independence in Montenegro, the process of codifying the Montenegrin language began, and new letters were added to the alphabet.

A difficult situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, since it is home to approximately equal numbers of Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks. Because of this, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a complex political structure - it has three presidents, one from each group, equal representation of deputies of different nationalities in parliament, and each minister has two deputies. However, the historical division into regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina does not coincide with the modern administrative division. The problem arises with the terms: Bosniaks are all residents of Bosnia, and Bosniaks are Muslim Slavs. The ethnonym “Bosniaks” is also used by some Islamized Slavs outside Bosnia, for example, in Sandjak, a region in southwestern Serbia.

The adoption of Islam led to the formation of new ethnic groups among the Slavs in other countries - Pomaks in Bulgaria and Greece, Torbeshes in Macedonia, Gorani in Kosovo. In addition to Muslim Slavs, most South Slavic countries also have non-Slavic minorities: Italians, Germans, Roma, Hungarians, ethnic groups of Romanian origin.

Non-Slavic countries in the Balkans are Greece and Albania. Greek and Albanian languages ​​belong to the Paleo-Balkan languages; their speakers lived in the Balkans even before the Roman conquest. There is no genetic relationship between them, but there is a sub-ethnic group - the Arvanites, who speak a dialect of the Albanian language, but often consider themselves Greeks. Albanian is an Indo-European language, but is not related to other living languages. Albanian is related to the extinct Illyrian languages, and Albanians themselves consider themselves descendants of the Illyrians. However, even modern research cannot fully answer the question about the ethnogenesis of the Albanians. Albanians are divided into two groups: northern (Ghegs) and southern (Tosks). In addition to Islam, some Gegs profess Catholicism, and Tosks profess Orthodoxy. The Albanians themselves call their country Skiperia, and their language is Shkip.

Kosovo Albanians form the majority in Kosovo, leading to the declaration of independence from Serbia. Albanians also live in Greece, Macedonia, and Montenegro. The irredentist idea of ​​“Ethnic Albania” (Shqipëria Etnike) is built on the idea of ​​their reunification in one state. Similar ideas are found in most other states in the Balkans due to the mismatch of ethnic and state borders.

The situation in the Balkans

The Balkans have frequently experienced ethnic conflicts and political crises due to their confused ethnic composition and the promotion of irredentist ideas. The bad historical reputation has led to the fact that even now the Balkans are considered a “dangerous” region.

There have been no military operations in the region for more than fifteen years, but some politicians do not give up attempts to mobilize national feelings for their own purposes. Many residents may speak negatively about their neighbors in discussions. At the level of personal relationships, representatives of different ethnic groups treat each other kindly, calculating the number of interethnic marriages. The mythical image of the Balkans depicts them as ardent nationalists, impulsive and militant. In practice, when traveling in the Balkans, you will meet kind and hospitable people, always ready to help.

In terms of tourism image, Albania fares the worst. The myth of militant nationalism is mixed with stereotypes about poverty, devastation and the Albanian mafia. In practice, Albania delights travelers with stunning nature and coastline, unique attractions, and ancient cities. Albania's negative image also affects Kosovo. This partially recognized state is just developing a tourism industry, thanks to medieval monasteries and national parks. Russians require a multiple-entry Schengen visa to visit Kosovo; to avoid bureaucratic problems, they should enter and exit from Serbia.

The Balkan Peninsula, or Balkans, is located in the southeastern part of Europe. It is washed by seven seas, the coastline is strongly dissected. The northern border of the peninsula is considered to be the line from the Danube, Kupa, and Sava rivers to the Kvarner Bay. There are countries here that are partially located on the peninsula. And there are those that are completely located on its territory. But they are all somewhat similar, although each has its own flavor.

Countries of the Balkan Peninsula

• Albania - located in the west, located entirely on a peninsula.
• Bulgaria - located in the east, completely located on a peninsula.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina - located in the center, located entirely on a peninsula.
• Greece - located on the peninsula and nearby islands;.
• Macedonia - located in the center, located entirely on a peninsula.
• Montenegro - located in the west, completely located on a peninsula.
• Serbia - located in the center, partly located on a peninsula, partly in the Pannonian Lowland.
• Croatia - located in the west, partly located on a peninsula.
• Slovenia - located in the north, completely located on a peninsula.
• Romania - located in the east, completely located on a peninsula.
• Türkiye is partly located on a peninsula.
• Italy occupies only a small - northern - part of the peninsula.

Geography of the area

As mentioned above, the coastline is very indented and there are bays. There are many small islands near the peninsula, a large part of which is occupied by Greece. The most dissected shores of the Aegean and Adriatic seas. For the most part, mountainous terrain prevails here.

A little history

The Balkan Peninsula was the first region in Europe where agriculture appeared. In ancient times, Macedonians, Greeks, Thracians and others lived on its territory. The Roman Empire managed to conquer most of the lands and bring its customs and traditions to them, but some of the nationalities did not abandon Greek culture. In the sixth century, the first Slavic peoples came here.

During the Middle Ages, the Balkan Peninsula was often attacked by various states, since it was an important region and transport artery. By the end of the Middle Ages, most of the territories were under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Conquest of the Balkan Peninsula by the Ottoman Turks

Starting in 1320, the Turks began to regularly try to conquer certain territories; in 1357 they managed to completely subjugate the island of Gallipoli - it came under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish conquest of the Balkan Peninsula continued for many decades. In 1365 Thrace was captured, in 1396 the Ottoman Empire managed to conquer the entire Vidin kingdom and lands up to the Balkan Mountains. In 1371 the Turks switched to Serbian lands; in 1389, after a long confrontation, the Serbs had to surrender.

Gradually, the border of the Ottoman Empire moved towards Hungary. The Hungarian king Sigismund decided that he would not give up and invited other European monarchs to gather to fight against the invaders. The Pope, the French troops and many other powerful people agreed with this proposal. It was decided to declare a crusade against the Turkish invaders, but this did not bring much success; the Turks absolutely defeated all the crusaders.

The power of the Turks weakened. It seemed that the Balkan Peninsula was returning to normal life. Tamerlane's power frightened the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian prince decided to regain control over the captured territories, and he succeeded. Belgrade became the capital of Serbia, but in the middle of the fifteenth century Ottoman Empire decided to return the position. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century. The countries of the Balkan Peninsula decided to completely get rid of the influence of the Turks. In 1912, the War of Independence began, which ended successfully for the Balkans, but the First World War soon began. In the 90s of the last century, Yugoslavia broke up into a number of states that exist until today(one of them - Kosovo - is partially recognized).

The color beckons

All states of the Balkan Peninsula are diverse. They have come a long way of development. They were conquered, many battles took place here, they suffered from invasions. For many centuries, these countries were not free, but now, being here, one cannot help but notice the spirit of freedom. Beautiful landscapes, miraculously preserved attractions and an excellent climate - all this attracts many tourists to these places, where everyone manages to find something special: someone goes to the beach, and someone to the mountains, but everyone remains fascinated by these countries.