Svyatoslav Igorevich had two main directions in the foreign policy of the first Kyiv princes: eastern and southwestern. In the east, his main opponent was the Khazar Kaganate, in the southwest - Bulgaria.

The young prince, being about 25 years old, turned out to be an energetic commander. In 965, Svyatoslav began a campaign against the Khazars. Hearing about this, the Khazars came out to meet them, led by the Kagan, and the battle began. Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars and took their cities. The Russes climbed the Dnieper to its headwaters and dragged the boats to the Oka. Along the Oka and Volga, Svyatoslav reached the capital of Khazaria - Itil.

Svyatoslav's allies were the Pechenegs and Guzes. The Pechenegs, supporters of Byzantium and natural enemies of the Khazars, came to the aid of Svyatoslav from the West, the Guzes - from the Yaik River, crossing the dune-covered expanses of the Caspian region. The allies met safely at Itil.

In the besieged city, the Jews had nowhere to run, so they went out to fight Svyatoslav and were defeated. Svyatoslav also came to Terek. There stood the second large city of the Khazar Jews - Semender, which had a quadrangular citadel, but it did not save the city. Svyatoslav defeated Semender and, taking horses, oxen, and carts from the population, moved across the Don to Rus'. Already on the way home, he took another Khazar fortress - Sarkel, located near the current village of Tsimlyanskaya. Sarkel was built by the Byzantines during their short friendship with Khazaria. In Sarkel, Svyatoslav met a garrison consisting of mercenary nomads. The prince won, destroyed the fortress, and renamed the city Belaya Vezha. Immigrants from the Chernigov land later settled there. The capture of Sarkel ended Svyatoslav’s victorious campaign against Khazaria.

As a result of the campaign of 964-965, Svyatoslav excluded the Volga, the middle reaches of the Terek and part of the Middle Don from the sphere of influence of the Jewish community. But not all military-political problems were solved. The Russian prince captured the mouth of the Kuban River and the coast Sea of ​​Azov. The Russian principality of Tmutarakan was formed on the Taman Peninsula; in Tmutarakan, the Jewish population under the name Khazars still retained their dominant position and retained financial influence. However, the main achievement of the campaign, undoubtedly, was that Kievan Rus regained its independence. The Khazar Khaganate, soon after Svyatoslav’s campaigns, ceased to exist as a state.

In 967, Svyatoslav went to the Danube and Bulgaria. He defeated the Bulgarians in battle, took 80 of their cities along the Danube, and sat down as ruler in Pereyaslavets, taking tribute from the Greeks.

The victorious campaigns of Svyatoslav alarmed the Byzantine emperor. He tried with all his might to turn the Kyiv prince into his ally, hoping to use Russian squads in the fight against the Danube Bulgarians.

The results of the campaign of 964-965 could not but raise the authority of Rus' in the eyes of the Byzantine ally, who tried with all his might to involve Svyatoslav in solving the foreign policy problems of the empire. The Byzantine government needed a person to negotiate with Svyatoslav. He turned out to be Kalokir - an energetic and ambitious man. He knew the language of the Slavs, their customs. For Byzantium, he concluded a profitable agreement with the Rus, which consisted in the capture of Bulgaria. However, Kalokir secretly dreamed of the imperial crown. He decided to rely on the army of the Rus and, having overthrown the old emperor Nikephoros II Phocas, seize power in Constantinople. Unfortunately for Kalokir, his plan was revealed under Phokas.

Fulfilling the agreement, in 968 the Kiev flotilla landed at the mouth of the Danube, the Russians defeated the Bulgarian Tsar Peter and captured Bulgaria. Svyatoslav captured a number of Bulgarian settlements, and declared the city of Pereyaslavets the new capital. Such a turn of events was not included in the plans of Byzantium. And Foka ordered the allies of Byzantium - the left bank Pechenegs - to attack Kyiv. Taking advantage of the fact that Svyatoslav was not in Kyiv, in 968 the Pechenegs came to Russian soil.

Olga locked herself in Kyiv with her grandchildren - Yaropolk, Oleg, Vladimir. The Pechenegs besieged the city great power There were countless numbers of them around, and it was impossible not to leave the city, not to get water, and people were exhausted from hunger and thirst. Then the people of Kiev sent a messenger to Svyatoslav with the words: “You, prince, are looking for someone else’s land and taking care of it, but have left your own. The Pechenegs almost took us, along with your mother and children. If you don’t come and protect us, then we will inevitably die. Don’t you feel sorry for your father, your old mother and children?” Hearing these words, Svyatoslav and his retinue immediately saddled their horses and returned to Kyiv. He greeted his mother and children and lamented what happened to them from the Pechenegs. Afterwards he gathered the soldiers and drove the Pechenegs into the field.

Svyatoslav, having abandoned everything in Bulgaria, discovered that he was not at all welcome in Kyiv, and in general he “didn’t like to sit in Kyiv.” Svyatoslav soon declared to his mother and boyars: “I don’t like Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube: there is the middle of my land, everything good is brought there from all sides: from the Greeks - gold, fabrics, wines, various fruits, from the Czechs and Hungarians - silver and horses, from Rus' - furs, honey, wax and slaves."

Olga did not want to let the prince go. She asked her son not to leave her, citing illness. The old princess soon died. Svyatoslav left his eldest son Yaropolk in Kyiv. He sent his second son, Oleg, to the land of the Drevlyans. He sent his third son, young Vladimir, to Novgorod. And he himself hastened to return to Bulgaria, to Pereyaslavets, where the situation also changed not in his favor.

Svyatoslav also spoke out against the Greeks. In 970 the war moved to Thrace. In the first battle, Svyatoslav prevailed and went to Constantinople, capturing the cities. In Philippopolis, he ordered 20 thousand prisoners to be impaled. Thus, he frightened the Bulgarians and forced them to obey him. Near Andrianople, the Russians met the army of Bardas Sklir and were defeated by him. But soon peace had to be made. Tzimiskes sent to tell Svyatoslav: “Don’t go to the capital, take as much tribute as you want.” Svyatoslav listened to him and took a huge tribute, gifts and returned to Pereyaslavl.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF HISTORY

“Foreign Policy of Kievan Rus in the IX-XII CENTURIES: FOREIGN POLICY OF SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH”

MINSK, 2005

INTRODUCTION

In the IX-XI centuries. Rus' was an early feudal monarchy with the Grand Duke of Kyiv at its head. Under him, a council of the most noble and powerful feudal lords was formed, and an apparatus of warriors also operated. Princely representatives (mayors and governors) were appointed to the cities. In vassal dependence on the Grand Duke were his relatives - appanage princes, boyars - owners of large land masses - and smaller feudal lords.

The foreign policy of the great Kyiv princes was entirely subordinated to the task of strengthening Rus' and uniting the tribes Eastern Slavs under the auspices of Kyiv. In the 10th century Kievan Rus was just emerging as a state. More and more tribes of the Eastern Slavs poured into it: the Drevlyans, Radimichi, Vyatichi, and so on. The Kyiv princes Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, and Vladimir Svyatoslavich consistently pursued a policy of annexing neighboring lands. By the beginning of the 11th century. almost all East Slavic lands were included in Kievan Rus.

Regular raids by nomadic tribes - Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsians - posed a threat to the young state, undermining its economy and the political unity of the Slavic lands. Therefore, we can highlight one more, and at the same time important, task in foreign policy - the defense of borders and their expansion through the subjugation of neighboring peoples.

Prince Svyatoslav (964 – 972) put a lot of effort into ensuring the security of Russian lands and strengthening the international authority of the young ancient Russian state. He defeated the Volga Bulgaria and defeated the Khazar Kaganate. Svyatoslav also waged successful wars with the Pechenegs, the Danube Bulgarians, and the Byzantine Empire.

PERSONALITY OF PRINCE SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH.

Prince of Kiev Svyatoslav Igorevich was the son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga. Lev the Deacon left us a description of him appearance: “...of moderate height, not too tall and not very low, with shaggy eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub nose, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above upper lip(mustache). His head was completely naked, but a tuft of hair hung from one side of it - a sign of the nobility of the family. The strong back of the head, wide chest and all other parts of the body are quite proportionate. He looked sullen and wild. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was decorated with a carbuncle framed by two pearls.

His attire was white and differed from the clothing of others (Russian rowers) only in its cleanliness.”

Svyatoslav matured early. His mother tried to attract her son’s attention to Christianity, but Svyatoslav’s thoughts were far from this. Having matured, Svyatoslav began to assemble a squad for himself, and it did not matter to the prince what nationality his warriors would be: the main thing was that they were good warriors. When going on a campaign, he did not carry a baggage train with him, which ensured speed of movement (“walking lightly, like pardus”), he ate horse meat or the meat of animals killed on occasion along with simple wars, slept on the bare ground, laying out a “pad” and putting the saddle in heads.

The words of Svyatoslav Igorevich will forever go down in history: “I want to go to you.”

The Greeks, Khazars and Pechenegs had to fight with this man.

EASTERN DIRECTION OF SVYATOSLAV’S POLITICS

(964-966)

Russian-Khazar-Byzantine relations in the middleXV.

In the 10th century The Russians repeatedly penetrated the Transcaucasian region, but by the middle of the 10th century. they were unable to gain a foothold there. The reasons for the failure are the following: the remoteness of the territories they captured in the Caspian region, the hostility of the local Muslim population, the hostility of the Khazar Kaganate, which closed the waterway along the Don and Volga. In 912, the Russians asked the Khazars to let their boats through, and on the way back most of them were killed by the Khazars, Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Considering the similar attitude of the Khazars towards them, the Russians made their next campaign in 945, bypassing the Kaganate and its allies on the Volga and Oka, i.e. by land through the North Caucasus.

In addition to the above, the question arose of liberating the East Slavic lands from the influence of the Khazars and consolidating the power of Kyiv over them. The first attempt here was made by Oleg, who in 885 sent an embassy to the Radimichs sitting on the banks of the Sozh River, ordering them not to give tribute to the Khazars, but to give him a shell each from a plow or plow.

Byzantium has long had influence in the Northern Black Sea region. She used the Kaganate as a conductor of her policy. Of course, there were conflicts and clashes, but on the whole the political aspirations of the empire and the kaganate coincided. It is no coincidence that in 834 Greek engineers built the Sarkel (Belaya Vezha) fortress on the lower Don. The Greeks foresaw the rise of Rus' and sought to forestall its expansion.

However, Rus' began to act first.

Destruction of the Khazar Kaganate by Svyatoslav.

The liquidation of the Khazar Kaganate was of great foreign policy significance for Kievan Rus. Firstly, the threat of an armed attack from the east was removed. Secondly, cities and fortresses that blocked trade routes were destroyed: Rus' gained the opportunity to conduct extensive trade with the East, waterways along the Don and Volga were opened. Thirdly, the tribes that were previously dependent on the Khazar Khaganate now came under the influence of Kievan Rus, or were completely annexed to it.

Svyatoslav began his campaign against the Khazars by entering the lands of the Vyatichi in 964. Most likely, there were no military actions between the Russians and the Vyatichi: Svyatoslav was interested in a friendly rear during the campaign in the lands of the Khazars. The chronicle also speaks in favor of this point of view, where there is no mention of the war with the Vyatichi: “And (Svyatoslav) went to the Oka River and the Volga, and the Vyatichi climbed, and said to the Vyatichi: “To whom do you give tribute?” They decided: “We’ll give Kozarom a shlyag from the raal.” Svyatoslav spent about a year in the Vyatichi lands; of course, the Khazars did not receive the due tribute.

The following year, Svyatoslav attacked the lands of Khazaria’s longtime allies - the Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Having defeated them, he now struck the Kaganate itself: “Svyatoslav is going to the Kozars. Hearing the kozars, he went against the enemy with his prince Kagan, and gave up the fight, and having fought, Svyatoslav overcame the kozar and their city and took the White Vezha. Conquer both the yasses and the kasogs.” Following Itil, which is most likely mentioned in the chronicle as “their city,” and Sarkel (White Vezha), the Russian army took Samkerts on the Taman Peninsula and Semender on the Terek.

The Arab chronicler Ibn-Haukal says that the inhabitants of the Volga and Azov regions asked that an agreement be concluded with them, and they would submit to the Russians. This fact suggests that the conquest of Khazaria was not a simple raid for the purpose of enrichment. Svyatoslav Igorevich sought to formalize relations with the top of the defeated Khazaria and Bulgaria, determine the nature of power in these lands and, with the help of an agreement, establish the dependence of this region on Kievan Rus.

In his “History” Lev the Deacon mentions the Cimmerian Bosporus (the region of modern Kerch) as the “fatherland” of the Russians, which belonged to them already under Igor. If we take into account this fact, as well as the fact that after the conquest of Khazaria, Svyatoslav founded the principality of Tmutarakan (on the Taman Peninsula), it becomes obvious the main objective campaign against the Kaganate. The influence of Kyiv in the Northern Black Sea region began to increase more and more. The lands of Rus' have already come close to the Byzantine possessions.

Svyatoslav completed the campaign where it began - in the lands of the Vyatichi. Under 966, the chronicler reports: “Svyatoslav defeated Vyatichi, and laid tribute on them.” It was now, when the Khazars were conquered and the need for a friendly rear had disappeared, that Svyatoslav finally seized power in the Vyatichi land and imposed tribute on the Vyatichi.

FOREIGN POLICY 966-968

The situation in the Northern Black Sea region and Bulgaria in 966-967.

After the defeat of Khazaria and the strengthening of Kyiv’s influence in the Northern Black Sea region, the lands of Rus' came close to the borders of Byzantium. A real threat to the empire's dominance in Crimea arose. If we turn to the works of the Arab chronicler Yahya of Antioch, we will find there a mention that the Byzantine emperor set out on a campaign against the Bulgarians “and defeated them and made peace with the Russians - and they were at war with him - and the Bulgarians agreed to fight with them and attack them." An open break in the peaceful relations between Bulgaria and Byzantium occurred in 966. Around this time, Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas moved to the Bulgarian border and captured the border cities. But what kind of war with the Russians is Yahya of Antioch talking about? Most likely, there was a conflict in Crimea, and the Russian army threatened Chersonesos. Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963 - 969) could not allow the loss of Chersonese, the breadbasket of the empire, as well as the main supplier of dried fish - the main food of the Constantinople poor. An urgent peace with Russia was needed, moreover, the blow aimed at Chersonesus had to be urgently redirected.

Kalokir mission.

The war between the empire and the Bulgarians flared up again in 966. After the death of Tsar Simeon, who was succeeded on the throne by his son Peter (927-969), Bulgaria was shaken, the ruling circles split into two parties: anti-Byzantine and pro-Byzantine. Emperor Nicephorus took advantage of this by starting a war with Bulgaria. At the same time, Byzantium began preparing a diplomatic mission to Kyiv. In 967 such a mission was sent.

The embassy was headed by Kalokir, the son of the Chersonese strategist. This person must have had excellent knowledge of the situation in Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, which once again indicates: the Russian-Byzantine conflict in Crimea, which threatened Chersonesos, still took place. In the capital Kalokir, the high rank of patrician was awarded and 15 centinarii (about 450 kg) of gold were given to be transferred to the Russians. He was tasked with concluding an alliance with Svyatoslav for common military operations against the Bulgarians.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF HISTORY

“Foreign Policy of Kievan Rus in the IX-XII CENTURIES: FOREIGN POLICY OF SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH”

MINSK, 2005

INTRODUCTION

In the IX-XI centuries. Rus' was an early feudal monarchy with the Grand Duke of Kyiv at its head. Under him, a council of the most noble and powerful feudal lords was formed, and an apparatus of warriors also operated. Princely representatives (mayors and governors) were appointed to the cities. In vassal dependence on the Grand Duke were his relatives - appanage princes, boyars - owners of large land masses - and smaller feudal lords.

The foreign policy of the great Kyiv princes was entirely subordinated to the task of strengthening Rus' and uniting the tribes of the Eastern Slavs under the auspices of Kyiv. In the 10th century Kievan Rus was just emerging as a state. More and more tribes of the Eastern Slavs poured into it: the Drevlyans, Radimichi, Vyatichi, and so on. The Kyiv princes Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, and Vladimir Svyatoslavich consistently pursued a policy of annexing neighboring lands. By the beginning of the 11th century. almost all East Slavic lands were included in Kievan Rus.

Regular raids by nomadic tribes - Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsians - posed a threat to the young state, undermining its economy and the political unity of the Slavic lands. Therefore, we can highlight one more, and at the same time important, task in foreign policy - the defense of borders and their expansion through the subjugation of neighboring peoples.

Prince Svyatoslav (964 – 972) put a lot of effort into ensuring the security of Russian lands and strengthening the international authority of the young ancient Russian state. He defeated the Volga Bulgaria and defeated the Khazar Kaganate. Svyatoslav also waged successful wars with the Pechenegs, the Danube Bulgarians, and the Byzantine Empire.

PERSONALITY OF PRINCE SVYATOSLAV IGOREVICH.

Prince of Kiev Svyatoslav Igorevich was the son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga. Lev the Deacon left us a description of his appearance: “... of moderate height, not too tall and not very low, with shaggy eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub nose, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above the upper lip (mustache). His head was completely naked, but a tuft of hair hung from one side of it - a sign of the nobility of the family. The strong back of the head, wide chest and all other parts of the body are quite proportionate. He looked sullen and wild. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was decorated with a carbuncle framed by two pearls.

His attire was white and differed from the clothing of others (Russian rowers) only in its cleanliness.”

Svyatoslav matured early. His mother tried to attract her son’s attention to Christianity, but Svyatoslav’s thoughts were far from this. Having matured, Svyatoslav began to assemble a squad for himself, and it did not matter to the prince what nationality his warriors would be: the main thing was that they were good warriors. When going on a campaign, he did not carry a baggage train with him, which ensured speed of movement (“walking lightly, like pardus”), he ate horse meat or the meat of animals killed on occasion along with simple wars, slept on the bare ground, laying out a “pad” and putting the saddle in heads.

The words of Svyatoslav Igorevich will forever go down in history: “I want to go to you.”

The Greeks, Khazars and Pechenegs had to fight with this man.

EASTERN DIRECTION OF SVYATOSLAV’S POLITICS

(964-966)

Russian-Khazar-Byzantine relations in the middle X V.

In the 10th century The Russians repeatedly penetrated the Transcaucasian region, but by the middle of the 10th century. they were unable to gain a foothold there. The reasons for the failure are the following: the remoteness of the territories they captured in the Caspian region, the hostility of the local Muslim population, the hostility of the Khazar Kaganate, which closed the waterway along the Don and Volga. In 912, the Russians asked the Khazars to let their boats through, and on the way back most of them were killed by the Khazars, Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Considering the similar attitude of the Khazars towards them, the Russians made their next campaign in 945, bypassing the Kaganate and its allies on the Volga and Oka, i.e. by land through the North Caucasus.

In addition to the above, the question arose of liberating the East Slavic lands from the influence of the Khazars and consolidating the power of Kyiv over them. The first attempt here was made by Oleg, who in 885 sent an embassy to the Radimichs sitting on the banks of the Sozh River, ordering them not to give tribute to the Khazars, but to give him a shell each from a plow or plow.

Byzantium has long had influence in the Northern Black Sea region. She used the Kaganate as a conductor of her policy. Of course, there were conflicts and clashes, but on the whole the political aspirations of the empire and the kaganate coincided. It is no coincidence that in 834 Greek engineers built the Sarkel (Belaya Vezha) fortress on the lower Don. The Greeks foresaw the rise of Rus' and sought to forestall its expansion.

However, Rus' began to act first.

Destruction of the Khazar Kaganate by Svyatoslav.

The liquidation of the Khazar Kaganate was of great foreign policy significance for Kievan Rus. Firstly, the threat of an armed attack from the east was removed. Secondly, cities and fortresses that blocked trade routes were destroyed: Rus' gained the opportunity to conduct extensive trade with the East, waterways along the Don and Volga were opened. Thirdly, the tribes that were previously dependent on the Khazar Khaganate now came under the influence of Kievan Rus, or were completely annexed to it.

Svyatoslav began his campaign against the Khazars by entering the lands of the Vyatichi in 964. Most likely, there were no military actions between the Russians and the Vyatichi: Svyatoslav was interested in a friendly rear during the campaign in the lands of the Khazars. The chronicle also speaks in favor of this point of view, where there is no mention of the war with the Vyatichi: “And (Svyatoslav) went to the Oka River and the Volga, and the Vyatichi climbed, and said to the Vyatichi: “To whom do you give tribute?” They decided: “We’ll give Kozarom a shlyag from the raal.” Svyatoslav spent about a year in the Vyatichi lands; of course, the Khazars did not receive the due tribute.

The following year, Svyatoslav attacked the lands of Khazaria’s longtime allies - the Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Having defeated them, he now struck the Kaganate itself: “Svyatoslav is going to the Kozars. Hearing the kozars, he went against the enemy with his prince Kagan, and gave up the fight, and having fought, Svyatoslav overcame the kozar and their city and took the White Vezha. Conquer both the yasses and the kasogs.” Following Itil, which is most likely mentioned in the chronicle as “their city,” and Sarkel (White Vezha), the Russian army took Samkerts on the Taman Peninsula and Semender on the Terek.

The Arab chronicler Ibn-Haukal says that the inhabitants of the Volga and Azov regions asked that an agreement be concluded with them, and they would submit to the Russians. This fact suggests that the conquest of Khazaria was not a simple raid for the purpose of enrichment. Svyatoslav Igorevich sought to formalize relations with the top of the defeated Khazaria and Bulgaria, determine the nature of power in these lands and, with the help of an agreement, establish the dependence of this region on Kievan Rus.

In his “History” Lev the Deacon mentions the Cimmerian Bosporus (the region of modern Kerch) as the “fatherland” of the Russians, which belonged to them already under Igor. If we take into account this fact, as well as the fact that after the conquest of Khazaria, Svyatoslav founded the principality of Tmutarakan (on the Taman Peninsula), the main goal of the campaign against the Kaganate becomes obvious. The influence of Kyiv in the Northern Black Sea region began to increase more and more. The lands of Rus' have already come close to the Byzantine possessions.

Svyatoslav completed the campaign where it began - in the lands of the Vyatichi. Under 966, the chronicler reports: “Svyatoslav defeated Vyatichi, and laid tribute on them.” It was now, when the Khazars were conquered and the need for a friendly rear had disappeared, that Svyatoslav finally seized power in the Vyatichi land and imposed tribute on the Vyatichi.

FOREIGN POLICY 966-968

The situation in the Northern Black Sea region and Bulgaria in 966-967.

After the defeat of Khazaria and the strengthening of Kyiv’s influence in the Northern Black Sea region, the lands of Rus' came close to the borders of Byzantium. A real threat to the empire's dominance in Crimea arose. If we turn to the works of the Arab chronicler Yahya of Antioch, we will find there a mention that the Byzantine emperor set out on a campaign against the Bulgarians “and defeated them and made peace with the Russians - and they were at war with him - and the Bulgarians agreed to fight with them and attack them." An open break in the peaceful relations between Bulgaria and Byzantium occurred in 966. Around this time, Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas moved to the Bulgarian border and captured the border cities. But what kind of war with the Russians is Yahya of Antioch talking about? Most likely, there was a conflict in Crimea, and the Russian army threatened Chersonesos. Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963 - 969) could not allow the loss of Chersonese, the breadbasket of the empire, as well as the main supplier of dried fish - the main food of the Constantinople poor. An urgent peace with Russia was needed, moreover, the blow aimed at Chersonesus had to be urgently redirected.

Kalokir mission.

The war between the empire and the Bulgarians flared up again in 966. After the death of Tsar Simeon, who was succeeded on the throne by his son Peter (927-969), Bulgaria was shaken, the ruling circles split into two parties: anti-Byzantine and pro-Byzantine. Emperor Nicephorus took advantage of this by starting a war with Bulgaria. At the same time, Byzantium began preparing a diplomatic mission to Kyiv. In 967 such a mission was sent.

The embassy was headed by Kalokir, the son of the Chersonese strategist. This person must have had excellent knowledge of the situation in Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, which once again indicates: the Russian-Byzantine conflict in Crimea, which threatened Chersonesos, still took place. In the capital Kalokir, the high rank of patrician was awarded and 15 centinarii (about 450 kg) of gold were given to be transferred to the Russians. He was tasked with concluding an alliance with Svyatoslav for common military operations against the Bulgarians.

In this way, the empire immediately solved a number of problems. Firstly, the threat to Crimea and Chersonesus was removed. Secondly, Bulgaria, exhausted by the war with Svyatoslav, will be easier to bring to submission.

Kalokir achieved what was expected of him in Constantinople. The terms of the treaty of 944 were confirmed. Svyatoslav renounced his claims to the Crimea; instead, he led his army to the Danube. The capture of the Danube region by the Russians suited everyone except the Bulgarians, of course. Rus', whose relations with Bulgaria deteriorated in the 30-60s. X century (it is enough to cite this fact: during Igor’s campaign against Byzantium in 943, the Bulgarians sent messengers to Constantinople to warn that the Russians and the Pechenegs they hired were coming), took control of important trade routes to the Balkans and Western Europe. Byzantium was getting rid of the threat to Crimea and Chersonesos. Of course, Nikifor II considered the presence of the Russians on the Danube to be a forced, temporary measure. Svyatoslav had no illusions about this either.

There was, however, one “but” that Foka overlooked. In Kyiv, Kalokir proposed an alliance to Svyatoslav: the Grand Duke would help the patrician ascend the throne of Byzantium, and he, in turn, would leave behind him all the conquered lands and give him a huge sum from the imperial treasury. Svyatoslav knew how the Greeks fulfilled the terms of the treaty (and even with the “barbarians”), he knew that a fight with the empire could not be avoided, and therefore he entered into a secret agreement with the patrician.

Svyatoslav's capture of the Danube region and his forced departure from there.

In the fall of 967 (or 968, as some historians believe), Svyatoslav’s army appeared on the Danube. “Svyatoslav is going to the Danube to the Bulgarians. And both fought, defeated Svyatoslav with the Bulgarians, and took the city 80 along the Dunaevi, and that gray-haired prince in Pereyaslavtsi, taking tribute to the princes.” It is unlikely that the Russian prince pursued purely economic goals when capturing the Danube region. His main task was to weaken Byzantium as much as possible and force Bulgaria, in which in 30-60. X century The pro-Byzantine Tsar Peter ruled and the anti-Russian party was strong, change its foreign policy, make Bulgaria an ally of Rus' in the fight against the empire, and only then extract economic benefits from all this.

It should be noted, however, that Svyatoslav did not gather at all in 967-968. conquer Bulgaria. Having captured Pereyaslavets and the other 80 cities, he remained on the Lower Danube without taking any military action against the Bulgarians. In any case, the chronicles do not contain any information on this matter.

The appearance of the Russians on the Danube could not but worry Emperor Nicephorus. Byzantium began preparations for a possible war with Russia. The first step of the empire was the embassy of Nicephorus Erotik and the Bishop of Euchaitis to the Bulgarians, frightened by the appearance of Svyatoslav. In the summer of 968, the return embassy was received with honor in Constantinople. However, formally the empire maintained peace with the Russians. This is evidenced by Russian merchant ships, which in the summer of 968 were still in the harbor of Constantinople.

From summer - autumn 967 to summer 968. Svyatoslav was in Pereyaslavets. There are no reports in the chronicles about the military actions of the Russians with the Bulgarians or Byzantines, so we can assume: Svyatoslav considered the goal of his campaign to the Danube achieved. The Greeks regularly paid him tribute (“emlya tribute na grtsekh”), stipulated in the peace treaty of 944.

In 968, Kyiv, the capital of Rus', was first besieged by the Pechenegs. The question involuntarily arises: wasn’t Emperor Nicephorus II standing behind the steppe nomads? Quite often, Byzantium resorted to similar tactics - to remove a strong enemy from the road with the help of intermediaries. Moreover, at that moment the empire had no other means of removing the Kyiv prince from the banks of the Danube. One way or another, Svyatoslav had to rush to the rescue of the capital, where his mother and young sons were settled. Going to Rus', he, however, left a strong detachment in Pereyaslavets, commanded by the governor Volk, loyal to the prince. This suggests that, while temporarily leaving the Danube region, the Grand Duke had no intention of giving this important region to either Byzantium or Bulgaria.

FOREIGN POLICY OF SVYATOSLAV IN 969-971

CONFLICT WITH BYZANTIUM.

Secondary capture of the Danube region by Svyatoslav.

Having received an alarming message from Rus', Svyatoslav immediately went to rescue Kyiv. The Pechenegs were driven away, after which the Grand Duke made peace with them. Svyatoslav wanted to immediately return to the Danube, but then his aged mother intervened: “You see that I am sick; Where do you want to leave me?” Svyatoslav had to wait for Olga’s death, after which he divided the Russian land between his sons (he gave Kyiv to Yaropolk, the Drevlyansky land to Oleg, Novgorod to Vladimir) and, having recruited reinforcements, moved to the Balkans.

In the fall of 969, Svyatoslav reappeared on the Danube. The situation in the region during this period could not please him. The peace with Bulgaria was broken. In 969, Tsar Peter died, and the Byzantines hastened to enthrone his son Boris, known as Boris II (969-972). Boris pursued a policy similar to that of Peter: he ruled based on the pro-Byzantine party and supported the empire in everything. Russian garrisons were driven out of the Danube fortresses. The Bulgarians besieged Pereyaslavets, some townspeople entered into an agreement with them (Tatishchev tells us about this), which forced Voivode Volk to leave the city. On the way back from Kyiv, Svyatoslav met the governor and his detachment at the mouth of the Dniester.

Svyatoslav was determined: he did not intend to give up the conquered cities. Therefore, having captured Pereyaslavets for the second time, the prince executed the traitors who had contacted the Bulgarians. This fact indicates that he assessed Pereyaslavets and the Danube region as territory belonging to Kievan Rus, and therefore punished the townspeople for treason.

After Pereyaslavets, Svyatoslav moved his army to Eastern Bulgaria. There was no one to defend the capital, the Byzantines were in no hurry to help their ally - and Preslava ended up in the hands of the Russians. Tsar Boris was also captured, but his dignity and royal regalia were left to him (when the Byzantines recaptured Preslava, they found Boris not in custody in the palace, but in the suburbs, and, moreover, in luxurious royal vestments). Svyatoslav did not want to conquer Bulgaria. He wanted, relying on the anti-Byzantine nobility, to return Bulgaria to the policy of the times of Simeon. The fact that in 969-971 Svyatoslav did not take any hostile actions towards the government of the “Comitopuls”, which had strengthened itself in Western Bulgaria, also speaks in favor of this.

After Svyatoslav strengthened himself in a number of Danube fortresses, he sent Emperor John Tzimisces (969-976), who came to power as a result palace coup, message: “I want to go to you and take your city, like this one.” Rus' recalled the empire and the Pecheneg attack on Kyiv, and the anti-Russian alliance with Bulgaria, and all sorts of attempts to remove Svyatoslav from the Danube. This was a declaration of war.

War with Byzantium (970-971).

Svyatoslav chose an opportune moment for war. Byzantium faced great internal and external difficulties. The Arabs tried to recapture Antioch, in the empire itself by 970 a severe famine worsened, which tormented the country for three years, and finally, during military operations, the rebellion of Bardas Phocas broke out. The formation of the Western Bulgarian Kingdom with an anti-Byzantine government at its head also benefited Svyatoslav.

Under these conditions, Tzimiskes tried to settle the matter peacefully, and an embassy was sent to Svyatoslav. It, as Lev the Deacon reports, undertook to pay Svyatoslav the “reward” promised by Nicephorus Foka in return for the Russians leaving Bulgaria. Svyatoslav, in turn, demanded either a huge ransom or the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Europe. Negotiations broke down.

Winter 969-970 took place in the border raids of the Russians on the empire. Widespread military operations have not yet been carried out. Svyatoslav was busy reinforcing his regiments with detachments of allied Bulgarians and light Pecheneg and Ugric (Hungarian) cavalry. John Tzimiskes was also preparing for war. He reorganized the army, created a detachment of “immortals”, after which he ordered his two best commanders - Master Varda Skler and Patrician Peter - to go to the region bordering Bulgaria and there to protect the lands of the empire from Russian raids.

In 970 the Russians invaded Macedonia and Thrace. The Greek cities of Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and Adrianople (Edirne) fell. But near Arcadiopolis, on the closest approaches to the capital, Varda Sklir overthrew the Bulgarians, Ugrians, and Pechenegs allied with the Russians and forced Svyatoslav to retreat.

Neither side achieved a decisive advantage in the summer of 970. The defeat at Arcadiopolis forced Svyatoslav to accept the embassy of Tzimiskes and agree to take tribute for both the living and the dead, “the verb is, “His race shall be taken.” The Russians retreated to the Danube. Svyatoslav returned to Pereyaslavets; governor Sveneld (Sfenecles) was in Preslav under Boris II.

The army of Tzimiskes marched north behind the regiments of Svyatoslav. Preslav fell, and Tsar Boris II fell into the hands of the Byzantines, whom John soon deprived of his title. Sveneld and a small detachment managed to escape and join Svyatoslav. Following Preslava, the Greeks captured the city of Pliska and reached the Danube to Dorostol. Svyatoslav and his army locked themselves in the city. On April 23, 971, the siege began.

The ranks of the Russians thinned (“many died on the shelf”), relations with the Pechenegs deteriorated (“the Pechenegs are fighting with us”), the military successes of Byzantium caused a decrease in Svyatoslav’s supporters among the Bulgarians. In addition, the Greeks, who dug a ditch around Dorostol and built an earthen rampart, received reinforcements and food and had at their disposal a variety of throwing machines. Soon the imperial fleet arrived with Greek fire on board and blockaded the city from the Danube.

Having given the Byzantines several battles, Svyatoslav sent envoys to their camp with a proposal for peace. The Empire was tired of wars, so John gladly seized this opportunity.

RUSSIAN-BYZANTINE TREATY 971

The Russian-Byzantine agreement concluded between Russia and the empire in the camp near Dorostol, as it were, draws a line under all the foreign policy activities of Svyatoslav Igorevich. It reflects both the foreign policy victories of Rus' and its failures.

Svyatoslav's ambassadors arrived at Tzimiskes' camp with a proposal for “peace and love,” after which the emperor sent his envoys with gifts to Dorostol. Leo the Deacon tells us that the Russian ambassadors in the camp of John Tzimiskes agreed to make peace with the Greeks on the following conditions: the Russians hand over Dorostol to the Greeks, release the prisoners and leave Bulgaria for their fatherland. The Greeks, for their part, pledged to let the Russian boats through from Dorostol and not to attack them with flamethrower ships, to allow the Russians to bring grain to them, to continue to consider Russian merchants in Byzantium as friends, to provide two measures of bread for each Russian warrior for the road. However, these were not yet peace negotiations, but only a truce necessary for concluding peace itself. These mutual obligations were conditions for the suspension of hostilities, and therefore were not indicated in the text of the treaty, recorded by the scribe in “haratya” in the Tzimiskes camp.

Negotiations began in Dorostol. On the part of the Russians, Svyatoslav and Sveneld took part in them, on the part of the Byzantines - Bishop Theophilus of Euchaitis. Then the Russian ambassadors again went to Svyatoslav’s camp, where the text of the treaty, worked out in the Russian camp with the participation of Greek ambassadors (“written under Thephele Sinkel and to Ivan, called Tsemsky”), was dictated to Tzimiskes and finally edited. Here is its main content:

Svyatoslav solemnly swore not to encroach on the lands of the empire itself, nor on Chersonesus (this point was already in the treaty of 944, so its repetition in the treaty of 971 can be considered as its strengthening), nor on Bulgaria. Rus' and the empire confirmed the validity of not only one treaty, but all Russian-Byzantine agreements, and above all the agreement of 907, which formulated the condition that Byzantium pay tribute to Rus'. Svyatoslav not only renounced aggression towards the empire on his own or the forces of his Russian allies, he also confirmed the clause of the 944 treaty on providing military assistance to Byzantium at the request of the latter.

Diplomatic work ended with a personal meeting between the prince and the emperor on the Danube. John Tzimiskes arrived in luxurious armor, surrounded by bodyguards. Svyatoslav sailed in a boat, rowing with an oar along with ordinary warriors.

Thus, we can talk about the treaty of 971 as a new level of Russian-Byzantine diplomatic relations. However, this was not a complete defeat for Russian foreign policy. Yes, Svyatoslav lost the war in Bulgaria and was forced to abandon this region (at least formally for now). However, the fact that, having left the Danube region, the Russians remained to spend the winter on the White Bank, clearly says the following: the restrictions imposed by Byzantium on Rus', which lost the campaign of 970-971, concerned only the territory of the empire itself and Bulgaria. In the Northern Black Sea region, in the Azov region and the Lower Volga region, the results of the Russian conquest were consolidated diplomatically. There is not a word in the treaty about these territories, which means that the empire had no claims to them.

The Russian-Byzantine Treaty of 971 fully reflected the new political aspects in relation to the two states. The old obligations were confirmed in it (“As I swore to the Greek king, and with me the bolyars and all of Rus', let us preserve the right conference”), and the new ones were fully reflected. This agreement is the result of nine years of foreign policy activity of Svyatoslav Igorevich, his works and efforts for the benefit of the young Russian state.

CONCLUSION.

In the fall of 971, Svyatoslav left Bulgaria. By agreement with Byzantium, the Greeks were obliged to ensure the safe passage of the Russians through the Dnieper rapids. It is impossible to say with one hundred percent certainty that it was the Greeks who persuaded the nomads to attack Svyatoslav, paying him in gold. The emperor sent Bishop Theophilus into the nomads, who informed the Pechenegs about the return of the Russian prince and asked for passage to his homeland. The Pechenegs refused to let the Russians through, but Svyatoslav was not informed about this. In addition, the Pereyaslavl people, and probably the anti-Russian part of the population that gained the upper hand in the city after the Russians left, informed the Pechenegs about the return of Svyatoslav with rich gifts and a large crowd.

When Svyatoslav's army on boats approached the rapids, the Pechenegs stood in his way. Voivode Sveneld, sent by the Grand Duke to Kyiv for reinforcements, before leaving, persuaded him to go around the rapids on horseback. Svyatoslav did not listen to the governor and went to spend the winter in Beloberezhye. Why didn’t the prince, who lost the war and was returning home with little strength, take the opportunity to bypass the enemy? Most likely, Svyatoslav Igorevich hoped to take revenge over time, so he remained waiting for help.

Winter 971-972 it turned out to be harsh. There was a severe famine, such that a horse's head was sold for half a hryvnia. in spring Russian army, apparently no longer having horses, again approached the rapids. The Pechenezh prince Kurya attacked the Russians. Svyatoslav was killed, and a drinking cup was made from his skull.

This is how the great Russian prince died, having spent his entire life on campaigns. The foreign policy of Svyatoslav Igorevich was a natural continuation of the policy of Oleg and Igor to strengthen the position of Kievan Rus in the Northern Black Sea region, on eastern trade routes, and in the Balkans. Through the efforts of Svyatoslav, the dangerous enemy of Rus' in the Northern Black Sea region - the Khazar Kaganate - was destroyed. And the agreement with the inhabitants of the territories conquered from Khazaria further strengthened Rus'’s position here.

Having created a threat to Chersonese, Svyatoslav forced Byzantium to conclude a secret treaty with him in 967. But he was not playing a simple game. Finding himself in the Lower Danube, Svyatoslav Igorevich tried to gain a foothold in this region and win anti-Russian Bulgaria to his side. When Russian-Byzantine relations worsened even more, the Kiev prince took a decisive step - an open war with the empire in order to put it in a dependent position on Rus'. Svyatoslav lost this campaign. Rus' lost its conquests in the Balkans, but was able to retain the Northern Black Sea region, which was very important for itself. Byzantium recognized the conquests of Rus' in this region.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED:

1. Soloviev S.M. History of Russia since ancient times, T. I; Moscow, 1959.

2. Gudz-Markov A.V. Pre-Mongol Rus' in chronicles of the V-XIII centuries, Moscow, 2005;

3. Sakharov A.N. Diplomacy of Svyatoslav, Moscow, 1982;

4. Rambo A. History of ancient and new Russia, Smolensk, 2000;

5. The Tale of Bygone Years / Preparation of the text, translation, articles and comments by D. S. Likhachev; edited by V. P. Adrianova-Peretz. – M., 2007.

The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Igorevich is definitely a hero in Russian history. The prince is not as positive as the ruler of a huge country. The period of his reign from 957 to 972 is characterized by fateful events for Russian history. However, this time is estimated controversially:

• on the one hand, Prince Svyatoslav accomplished great deeds that became the foundation for the development and prosperity of the ancient Russian state;
• another series of important political mistakes that negatively affected the further course of national history.

Domestic policy

In internal affairs, the policy of Prince Svyatoslav was expressed in disharmonious political actions:

Foreign policy

If domestic policy Prince Svyatoslav did not pay the necessary attention, then in foreign policy he showed himself fully as a positive hero, although here there were omissions:

The charm of Prince Svyatoslav's personality is based on his confident strength, military leadership talent, desire to expand the influence of the Old Russian state and modesty in everyday life. However, the stunning military successes were not properly consolidated.

EASTERN DIRECTION OF SVYATOSLAV’S POLICY (964-966)

Russian-Khazar-Byzantine relations in the middle of the 10th century.

In the 10th century The Russians repeatedly penetrated the Transcaucasian region, but by the middle of the 10th century. they were unable to gain a foothold there. The reasons for the failure are the following: the remoteness of the territories they captured in the Caspian region, the hostility of the local Muslim population, the hostility of the Khazar Kaganate, which closed the waterway along the Don and Volga. In 912, the Russians asked the Khazars to let their boats through, and on the way back most of them were killed by the Khazars, Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Considering the similar attitude of the Khazars towards them, the Russians made their next campaign in 945, bypassing the Kaganate and its allies on the Volga and Oka, i.e. by land through the North Caucasus.

In addition to the above, the question arose of liberating the East Slavic lands from the influence of the Khazars and consolidating the power of Kyiv over them. The first attempt here was made by Oleg, who in 885 sent an embassy to the Radimichs sitting on the banks of the Sozh River, ordering them not to give tribute to the Khazars, but to give him a shell each from a plow or plow.

Byzantium has long had influence in the Northern Black Sea region. She used the Kaganate as a conductor of her policy. Of course, there were conflicts and clashes, but on the whole the political aspirations of the empire and the kaganate coincided. It is no coincidence that in 834 Greek engineers built the Sarkel (Belaya Vezha) fortress on the lower Don. The Greeks foresaw the rise of Rus' and sought to forestall its expansion.

However, Rus' began to act first.

Destruction of the Khazar Kaganate by Svyatoslav.

The liquidation of the Khazar Kaganate was of great foreign policy significance for Kievan Rus. Firstly, the threat of an armed attack from the east was removed. Secondly, cities and fortresses that blocked trade routes were destroyed: Rus' gained the opportunity to conduct extensive trade with the East, waterways along the Don and Volga were opened. Thirdly, the tribes that were previously dependent on the Khazar Khaganate now came under the influence of Kievan Rus, or were completely annexed to it.

Svyatoslav began his campaign against the Khazars by entering the lands of the Vyatichi in 964. Most likely, there were no military actions between the Russians and the Vyatichi: Svyatoslav was interested in a friendly rear during the campaign in the lands of the Khazars. The chronicle also speaks in favor of this point of view, where there is no mention of the war with the Vyatichi: “And (Svyatoslav) went to the Oka River and the Volga, and the Vyatichi climbed, and said to the Vyatichi: “To whom do you give tribute?” They decided: “We’ll give Kozarom a shlyag from the raal.” Svyatoslav spent about a year in the Vyatichi lands; of course, the Khazars did not receive the due tribute.

The following year, Svyatoslav attacked the lands of Khazaria's longtime allies - the Volga Bulgars and Burtases. Having defeated them, he now struck the Kaganate itself: “Svyatoslav is going to the Kozars. Hearing the kozars, he went against the enemy with his prince Kagan, and gave up the fight, and having fought, Svyatoslav overcame the kozar and their city and took the White Vezha. Conquer both the yasses and the kasogs.” Following Itil, which is most likely mentioned in the chronicle as “their city,” and Sarkel (White Vezha), the Russian army took Samkerts on the Taman Peninsula and Semender on the Terek.

The Arab chronicler Ibn-Haukal says that the inhabitants of the Volga and Azov regions asked that an agreement be concluded with them, and they would submit to the Russians. This fact suggests that the conquest of Khazaria was not a simple raid for the purpose of enrichment. Svyatoslav Igorevich sought to formalize relations with the top of the defeated Khazaria and Bulgaria, determine the nature of power in these lands and, with the help of an agreement, establish the dependence of this region on Kievan Rus.

In his “History” Lev the Deacon mentions the Cimmerian Bosporus (the region of modern Kerch) as the “fatherland” of the Russians, which belonged to them already under Igor. If we take into account this fact, as well as the fact that after the conquest of Khazaria, Svyatoslav founded the principality of Tmutarakan (on the Taman Peninsula), the main goal of the campaign against the Kaganate becomes obvious. The influence of Kyiv in the Northern Black Sea region began to increase more and more. The lands of Rus' have already come close to the Byzantine possessions.

Svyatoslav completed the campaign where it began - in the lands of the Vyatichi. Under 966, the chronicler reports: “Svyatoslav defeated Vyatichi, and laid tribute on them.” It was now, when the Khazars were conquered and the need for a friendly rear had disappeared, that Svyatoslav finally seized power in the Vyatichi land and imposed tribute on the Vyatichi.