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Reign of Charles X (1824-1830). King Charles X of France

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

LIPETSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF WORLD HISTORY

VEDENEEV SERGEY BORISOVICH

MAIN DIRECTIONS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

POLITICS OF CHARLES GREAT

final qualifying work

Lipetsk 2012

Introduction

The era of the empire of Charlemagne is an integral part of European history. Events dedicated to this work, cover the period of time from 768. to 814, i.e. when the Frankish state was ruled by Charlemagne. German historian Arno Borst in the 70s. XX century characterized the life of Charlemagne as follows: “Charlemagne laid the foundation for a history that still arouses the interest of specialists dealing with modern Europe; we are talking about mutual understanding of European peoples and national divisions, about state structure and social structures, about Christian morality and ancient education, about inexhaustible tradition and alluring freedom.” In essence, the history of the state of Charlemagne was part of the, by that time, still unfinished process of building a united Europe, vividly reminiscent of itself at the present time with its variety of forms and novelty. The map of Europe has undergone significant changes literally over the past two decades. Some states and unions disappeared, they were replaced by others. Europe, now striving to acquire a new political image, is undoubtedly returning to its roots, to the interethnic, multi-level structure formed by the personality of the ruler and his family, which we usually call the era of the Carolingian dynasty or the empire of Charlemagne.

Therefore, from the point of view of modern reality, namely, the course of political and economic processes in modern Europe the topic of this thesis seems to me extremely relevant. At present, in European states, as in the times of Charlemagne, the political, economic, religious, and territorial interests of many peoples and their economic and political elites are intertwined in a most complex way. The confrontation between Islam, especially its militant, irreconcilable teachings of Wahhabism and Christianity, is more acute than ever. Events confirm this recent years, in Bosnia and Albania, the collapse of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, the ever worsening crisis “in the euro zone.”

In writing this work, my goal was to comprehensively consider and characterize the main directions of the foreign and domestic policies of Charlemagne. Therefore, I see the main tasks facing me as the need to reveal the diversity of his plans and ways of implementing them in the life of society.

The German historian Leopold von Ranke, in his work “History of the Roman and Germanic Peoples” (1824), spoke about the symbiosis of European peoples, about the origin of their common history, the source of which is the empire of Charlemagne. Later Arno Borst in the book “Old scheme of lectures on the study of history” 1868. noted that in the Carolingian age, the West acquired its final shape as a Christian empire, which arose under the leadership of the Frankish kings, and moved away from Byzantium. The political and theological dispute about the veneration of icons (iconoclasm), in which the influence of Charlemagne played an important role, according to Borst, also prepared the separation of the Eastern Church from Latin Christianity, which ended in 1054. split of the United Christian Church. Borst also noted that "The Empire of Charlemagne bore within itself the blessed beginning of instilling in the European peoples the idea of a cultural community which has since... embodied the right of precedence...".

Belgian historian of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Henri Perenne, who also devoted a lot of attention to Charlemagne, in his book Mahomet and Charlemagne, examined in detail the period of his reign and assessed it in terms of technical innovation, massive development of new lands, improvement of the structure of agriculture, noting that the reign within the framework of the Carolingian empire, a sharp economic leap was prepared, expressed, in particular, in the subsequent development of medieval cities. He considered another world-historical moment of that era to be the settlement of the Franks to the east - to the other bank of the Rhine all the way to the Elbe.

The only partially preserved lifetime manuscript about the life of Charlemagne, which, according to Dieter Hegermann, served as the basis for the Carolingian historian Eingard to write a biography of the emperor, is stored in the Corby monastery library and represents a reworking of the late antique Gallic heritage in the field of economics and social order, church and culture.

The manuscript of a contemporary of Charlemagne's comrade-in-arms, his biographer Karl Eingard, “The Life of Charlemagne,” is undoubtedly of enormous historical value. It has survived to this day in more than 80 lists. Already at that time, Eingard felt the need to erect a monument to the unique ruler and his “inimitable deeds”, to highlight the scale of this historical figure, whose national identity would be contested in the future by two peoples: French and German. He wrote: “Starting to describe the life, character and exploits of the sovereign... I present to you, reader, my work, written to preserve the memory of a glorious and great man.” “The Life of Charlemagne” is a kind of unique work, a primary literary and historical monument of the era. It went through a huge number of editions and was translated into major European languages.

In the 12th century. manuscripts of French and German monks appear that have survived to our time, in which Charlemagne’s affiliation was alternately affirmed, either with the ancestors of the Germans, or with the ancestors of the French. The work of 1935 was devoted to the same topic. “About eight answers from German historians. Charlemagne and Charlemagne." The anachronistic question of the nationality of Charlemagne, who rightfully considered himself a Frank, again arises in the book published in 1956. five-volume bibliography of the authors Hermann Heimpel, Theodor Heys and Benno Reifenberg "The Great Germans" and decides amazingly. They conclude that Charlemagne “was not a German,” and there was a time when the German people simply did not exist. From this, the authors conclude that it is logical to name among the “great Germans” such figures who, even without realizing the ultimate goal, turned out to be an instrument of history. Thus, they became involved in the history of the emergence of this people, determining its national character.

Published in 1965 - 1968. Wolfgang Braunfels and Helmut Boymann's five-volume study of Charlemagne puts an end to the centuries-old dispute between two European nations. Based on ancient Venetian chronicles, the 11th century codex. from the Cava monastery in southern Italy, on the chronicle manuscripts of Einhard, they conclude that already in the second decade of the 9th century. The Franks and Saxons were one people.

Written in 1981, translated into Russian and published in 1986. the work of the Hungarian scientist E. Gergely “History of the Papacy” tells about what happened over many centuries in the residence of the popes, about the destinies and affairs of those people who occupied the papal throne, and about the struggle that they waged to spread and strengthen influence Catholic Church. Avoiding the shortcomings of extreme points of view, without offending anyone's beliefs, E. Geigey examines the relationship of the Carolingian dynasty with the papacy. In 1993 The book “The Origin of the Franks. V - IX century" by Associate Professor of the Department of History of the Middle Ages of the city of Lille Stephane Lebec, which examines the problem of the historical roots of medieval France, in the light of the latest archaeological data, with the involvement of well-known primary source texts. The author comes to the conclusion that the history of the Frankish state of the early period “... was much less a history of abrupt changes than a history of evolutionary processes, different in nature depending on time and place.” In 1996 “The History of Military Art” by Hans Delbrück is published, in which, using texts from sources of the Carolingian era, an analysis is given of the military construction of the empire of Charlemagne, the subsequent development of the military affairs of the Franks and other European peoples.

In 1996 - 1997 The two-volume book “The Franks - the Forerunners of Europe” by Karl Ferdinand Werner was published, including materials from two historical thematic exhibitions held in those years in Mannheim and Paris, and dedicated to the era of Carolingian rule and the empire of Charlemagne. 1997 “Harper’s Encyclopedia of Military History” is published for the first time in Russia. Book 1. World history of wars 3500 BC - 1400g. from R.H.” It shows the evolution of methods of warfare, military strategy and tactics of the Carolingian era. The wars of the Franks and their influence on the way of life of the peoples of the Frankish Empire are considered. In 1999 The work of 1748 was translated into Russian and was published. French philosopher and educator Charles Louis Montesquieu, where the interpretation of legislative acts of the period of Carolingian rule is given, the form of government of Charlemagne is determined by the uniqueness of the state, its size, climate, geographical conditions, religion. Also in 1999. The work of the German historian Oskar Jaeger “World History” of 1904 is being republished. in four volumes, the second volume of which is devoted to the history of the Middle Ages. It gives the characteristics historical figures the Carolingian era, which appear in bright, lively and memorable literary sketches. This publication is distinguished by its abundance of factual material and beautifully selected illustrations. One of the most complete works on Frankish topics is the book by the German historian D. Hegermann “Charlemagne” written in 2000. and published in Russian in 2003. In it, the author sets himself the task of determining where the legend of the Frankish emperor ends and the true story of an intelligent, far-sighted politician and commander who transformed his weak, bloodless state into a powerful empire by force of sword and diplomacy begins. Rene Musso - Goulart in the book “Charlemagne” published in 2003. notes that “The history of Charlemagne is the history of a king, inextricably linked with the history of the people subject to him,” who stood at the origins of federal statehood in Western Europe. All his efforts were subordinated main goal- creation of the Carolingian Empire. A distinctive feature of the book is the abundance of text excerpts from various historical sources of that time. Book 2004 edition, by the English scientist Norman Davis, “The History of Europe” consists of twelve narrative sections outlining the history of Europe sequentially from prehistoric times to 1990. Chapter IV - "The Birth of Europe" examines the early period of medieval France, "when for the first time it is possible to recognize what we define as the European community." The empire of Charlemagne is considered from a materialistic position, based on geology and economic resources, through the prism of art and the development of science. “The main thing in this process was the interpenetration of the classical and barbarian worlds and, as a result, the birth of the Christian community - in other words, the foundation of the Christian world.” Published in 2011 The study of the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne “The Empire of Charlemagne and the Arab Caliphate” is devoted to the influence that the barbarian invasion of the Roman Empire, and then the conquest of part of this territory by the Muslim Arabs and its inclusion in the Arab Caliphate, had on the development of the history of Western Europe. A. Piren explores the separation of the East of Europe from its Western part, the decline into which the Merovingian monarchy plunged, and the emergence of the Carolingian dynasty. The causes and consequences of the union of the popes with the new dynasty, their break with Byzantium, emphasizes the dominant role of the church and large landowners in the history of Europe in the 7th - 8th centuries.

IN Soviet time works on Carolingian history of a fundamental nature were practically not published, because this topic was considered irrelevant and even provocative. Evidence of this is published in 1957. and reissued in 1999. second volume of “History of Military Art of the VI - XVI centuries.” Professor, Major General E. A. Razin, which describes the development of the military art of the peoples of the world, including the Franks of the Middle Ages. “Marxist-Leninist military science,” i.e., the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, was taken as the methodological basis of the monograph. However, this can be said to be the only large-scale study of the military history of the Middle Ages in our country at that time. The book is written in simple and clear language, with a large number of maps. The descriptions of the battles and battle formations of the Frankish troops are clear and interesting. 1961 “Anthology of monuments of the feudal state and the law of European countries” is published under the editorship of academician V. M. Koretsky. The sources of the state of the ancient Franks, and then France, are usually given in extracts. The purpose of the publications, as V. M. Koretsky notes, was “to show those of them that most fully reflect the features of feudal political system and its legal system." In the three-volume “History of France” 1972. edited by A.Z. Manfred only devotes a few pages to Charlemagne and his empire. Reference publications published bibliographical articles containing rather meager information about the Frankish empire and Emperor Charlemagne. In 1986 edited by N.F. Kolesnitsky, the book “History of the Middle Ages” is published with rather meager information about the period of the reign of Charlemagne. In 1987 A collection of works from the first third of the 20th century was presented to the attention of readers. Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences O. A. Dobiash - Rozhdestvenskaya “Culture of the Western European Middle Ages”, which provides comprehensive information about sources and source studies Western Middle Ages including the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties.

I would like to note the repeatedly published Lately, revised and supplemented with new information, the work of the writer-historian Professor A.P. Lewandowski's Charlemagne. Through the Empire to Europe." This is essentially a biography of an entire era - the period of formation of the medieval states of Western Europe - France, Germany, Italy. The author examines various aspects of the activities of the Frankish emperor: administrative, economic, cultural and spiritual. Traces his attempt to create an ideal state, the "City of God", on earth. The main text is accompanied by a number of interesting appendices. These include: an authorized translation of Einhard's Life of Charlemagne, the famous Capitulary on the Estates, a study of Carolingian land holdings, an analysis of the separate acts of the empire.

1997 with a break of almost a hundred years according to the 1896 edition. The work of the outstanding Russian historian D.I. Ilovaisky “Ancient History. Middle Ages. New story" Taking only facts as a basis, the author impartially showed living life and living people of different centuries - the world of passions and the creative work of time, including the Carolingian era. Also in 1997. the 3-volume “History of Wars” by N.N. Golovkova, A.A. Egorova, V.P. Podelnikov is published in the first volume of which the causes of conflicts between Charlemagne and neighboring territories, the course of military operations, the forces of the opposing sides, the main patterns of development of weapons and military art in the Middle Ages. The book is illustrated with diagrams, drawings, maps.

In 1999 Several more works on Carolingian topics are published. This is the work of the priest-philosopher A. Me “History of Religion. Paths of Christianity”, in which one of the paragraphs tells about religious life in the empire of Charlemagne. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages at Voronezh State University, edited by N. I. Devyataikina, N. P. Mananchikova “Early Western European Middle Ages,” which presents a selection of the most important sources on the history of the early Middle Ages, including political, religious, cultural, and social economic topics. “History of the Middle Ages” is a publication that is a classic monumental anthology of the history of the Middle Ages, compiled at the end of the 19th century (1863) by the famous Russian historian M. M. Stasyulevich, 1376 pages of its first volume are devoted to historical primary sources of the 5th - 9th centuries. and the works of the best writers and researchers of this period, the first half of the 19th century.

In 2000 The book “Historians of the Carolingian Age” is published, edited by M. A. Timofeeva. The book includes the most striking and informative monuments of historical thought of the 8th - 1st centuries: “The Life of Charlemagne” by Einhard, “The Xenten Annals”, “The Life of Emperor Louis” by Anonymous, “History” by Nithard, “The Vedastin Annals”. Their content covers the political, cultural and religious life of the Carolingian state throughout its history. All of them (with the exception of Einhard) are being translated into Russian for the first time. 2000 V. P. Budanova’s monograph “The Barbarian World of the Age of the Great Migration of Peoples” is published, which is a comprehensive study of the barbarian world at the turn of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

It identifies the main historical characteristics of the Franks, examines their ethnohistorical structure and dynamics, identifies ethnic space, the composition of tribal associations, and the characteristics of ethnosocial mobility. Also in 2000. A book by professional military historian A.V. Shilov, “100 Great Military Leaders,” is being published, where as a criterion for assessing the greatness of Charlemagne as a military leader, he takes, first of all, the victories he won in battles and the extent to which these victories determined the course of a particular war.

2010 in the “100 Greats” series of the “Veche” publishing house, the book “100 Great Geniuses” by R. K. Balandin was published, which examines the personality of Charlemagne and his era from the point of view of achievements in the field of religion, philosophy, art, literature and science, i.e. that is, in those areas of the spirit where human creative abilities are most fully manifested.

Historical sources and research dedicated to Charlemagne and his empire were the basis for me when writing this work. As I study them, out of the political chaos reigning in Western Europe at that time, the figure of Charlemagne emerges, a ruler step by step creating and shaping his kingdom.

Chapter 1. Formation of the Empire of Charlemagne

1.1 Predecessors

To appreciate and understand the multifaceted personality of Emperor Charlemagne and the foreign and domestic policies pursued by him, in my opinion, it is necessary to turn to early history francs The beginning of this story, their path to Charles’s empire, will undoubtedly make it possible to more fully and reliably understand the historical significance of the activities and personality of the emperor.

In sources, the “Franks” are mentioned for the first time in the middle of the 3rd century, each time in connection with belligerence and their desire to settle on Roman territory. “...the tribes of the Saxons and Franks wandered... All these peoples, both large and small, had no other means of subsistence other than the sword, spear or axe. Constantly in war among themselves, these barbarian peoples captured booty and were never satisfied with it, disputed the property of the Roman provincials with one another, ruined and devastated, as best they could, the country that was supposed to support them.” At the turn of the 5th - 6th centuries, the process of internal unification of the Franks reaches such a level that at first a not very strong tribal union begins to turn into a nationality. The formation of a single territory accelerated this process, strengthening the consciousness of a common ethnicity. “At the end of the 5th century. the migrations were completed by those who started them, the West German group of tribes - the Franks. The unstable way of life, accompanied by more or less frequent changes in the place of settlement of these tribes, ended, as did the overall process of their consolidation.” Usually the emergence of the Frankish state is associated with the reign of Clovis (481 - 511). “Having killed many other kings, even his closest relatives, for fear that they would take away his kingdom, Clodoveus (Clovis) subjugated all of Gaul to his power.” “By the end of his reign, Clovis already bore the title of king. A cruel and unscrupulous “barbarian,” he was distinguished by his violent energy, passion for conquest and desire to unite all neighboring territories and tribes under his rule.”

Although the Franks were still pagans, their ruler had long ago realized the moral power that Christianity had. Clovis adopted Christianity with his retinue in 496 or 498 and contributed to its spread among his subjects. “... the king recognized the almighty God in the trinity, was baptized in the name of father and son and the holy spirit, was anointed with the sacred oil and overshadowed by the cross of Christ. And more than three thousand people from his army were baptized.”

By the beginning of the 7th century. the general structure of the state, barely outlined under Clovis, was finally formed. At this time, a new, powerful family of mayors emerged; a family that managed to secure this important title for itself and, with its help, subjugate other magnates. It was a clan that received the name Pipinids, after the name of its founder.

In 681 his descendant, also Pepin, nicknamed Gerestal, having won a brilliant victory over his rivals, became the sole mayor of the Frankish state, in fact its sole ruler, finally relegating the “lazy”, powerless Merovingian kings to the background. “... this family (of the Merovingians) died out... but for a long time it had no vitality and attracted attention only with the vainglorious title of king, because power and state power were in the hands of the highest dignitaries of the court, called mayordomos, who actually ruled the state.” “And the king had to be content with his title and show the appearance of power... The mayor took care of the management of the kingdom and all internal and external affairs.”

Pepin of Geristal was the great-grandfather of Charlemagne. His illegitimate son, Charles, nicknamed “Martel” (Hammer), became the grandfather of Charlemagne, and his son, Pepin the Short, became the father of Charles. But it was with Charles Martel that the true power of the Pipinids began, which led them to the royal and then the imperial throne.

Three main figures determined the course of the history of the Franks in the V-VIII centuries, and prepared the reign of Charlemagne - Clovis, Charles Martel and Pepin the Short.

Clovis laid the first stone in the foundation of the state and the church, Charles Martel outlined the social basis of the new society, Pepin the Short strengthened and further developed the achievements of his ancestors. One might say he paved the way for his son, the future Emperor Charles, to his dream of the “City of God.”

September 24, 768 King Pepin died. “... the kingdom, according to the Frankish custom of inheritance, was equally divided between his two sons: Charles (the eldest) and Carloman,” December 4, 771. Carloman died unexpectedly. “After the death of his brother, Charles, with universal consent, was proclaimed the sole king of the Franks.” He takes his brother's lands under his control and becomes the sole king of the Franks, depriving Carloman's widow and two young sons of inheritance and the crown. This event seems to open the road of conquest along which Charles will go for the rest of his life.

1.2 Formation of the empire

772 begins the era of Charles's great wars. The era of his creation of the Frankish Empire. From this moment on, almost the entire reign of Charles would be filled with military campaigns.

The Lombard king Desiderius, having accepted his wife and children who had fled from Charles after the death of Carloman, demanded that the pope anoint Carloman's sons as the legitimate heirs of his father. “... after the death of Carloman (771), his widow with her sons and the most noble of the courtiers, for no apparent reason, neglected the hospitality of her brother-in-law and fled to Italy to seek the protection of Desiderius, king of the Lombards.” However, Pope Andrian I categorically refused to do this, and fearing further oppression from Desiderius, sent an embassy to Charles, begging him to come to the aid of the “Holy Roman Church.” “Charles, yielding to the urgent requests of the Roman Bishop Andrian, undertook a war against the Lombards.” In June 773 Charles began preparing troops for a campaign to help his dad. War with Desiderius becomes inevitable. The Frankish army heads towards the Alps. Despite the resistance of the Lombards, he overcomes the mountains and besieges the Lombard capital of Pavia along with King Desiderius who is there. Leaving part of the army under siege, Charles and his main forces set off for Verona. Having taken the city, he captured the family of Carloman who was there (their further fate is unknown), but missed his son Desiderius Adelgiz, who fled to Constantinople.

Rome was waiting for Charles as a savior. On April 2, Holy Saturday, the troops solemnly entered the city. Karl walked on foot to the Church of St. Peter, and demonstrating his deep faith, kissed all the steps of the stairs leading to the temple. He entered it together with Pope Andrian I. “In Rome, of all the holy and blessed places, Charles most revered the Basilica of St. Apostle Peter, to whose treasury he donated a lot of gold, silver and precious stones.” On the same visit, Karl issued a new deed of gift, which greatly increased the territories previously promised by the “donation of Pepin.” “...the lands taken from the Lombard kings were returned to Hadrian, the ruler (rektori) of the Roman church.” The army then returned to besieged Pavia. Desiderius and his family surrendered to Charles, the treasures of the palace were distributed to the soldiers, and Desiderius and his wife were forced to take monastic vows and imprisoned in a monastery. To his title "King of the Franks" Charles added "and of the Lombards, Roman patrician." “Karl, having started the war, did not stop before he forced Dysederia, tired of the long siege, to surrender, and his son, Adalgiz, on whom everyone pinned their hopes, forced him to leave not only the state, but also Italy (774); Charles returned everything taken from the inhabitants of Rome to them...”

Incited by Adelgiz, the Dukes of Frioul and Spoletto hatched a conspiracy, planning to take control of Rome and restore the rule of the Lombards. However, Charles in 776 defeated the conspirators, subjugated the rebellious cities to his power. Adelgiz fled again, the Duke of Friul was killed. “... he pacified the governor of the Duchy of Friuli, who was plotting a new uprising (776) …”.

At the end of 780 the king arrives again in Pavia “But some time later the idea came to him to look at Rome, the only ruler of the world, to bow to the prince of the apostles and the mentor of the nations and introduce himself and his son to them. Relying on such assistants, who were given power in heaven and on earth, he thought to keep the conquered in obedience and overcome the difficulties of war, if any presented themselves; he believed at the same time that it would be of considerable help to him if he and his sons accepted the signs of royal dignity from the vicar of the apostles and his pastoral blessing... After everything that could be expected from Rome had been achieved, Charles returned in peace to France, together with his sons and army: he sent Louis to Aquitaine to govern the country, giving him Arnold as his guardian, and duly appointed other servants necessary for children's education" Charles gives control of the country of the Lambards, Italy, to another new king, his four-year-old son Pipin. “...over all Italy, subject to his power, he installed his son Pepin as king.” But conquering Italy was not so easy. Arachis, Duke of Benevento, son-in-law of the deposed Desiderius, declared his rights to the kingdom. Informed by the pope about everything, Charles at the beginning of 787. was already in Rome, where he decided to subjugate the possessions of Peanut. The army entered the duchy. Peanut, wanting to avoid ruin, formally swore allegiance to the king of the Franks, but secretly hoping to later disobey at an opportune moment. “But the duke of this people, Peanut, prevented the war: having sent his sons Rumolda and Grimold to meet the king with great gifts and asking to take them both hostage, he promised, together with all the people, to fulfill any commands...” The unexpected death of his son Romuld, and then Peanut himself, put an end to these plans. But now Adelgiz, with the support of Byzantium, began an attack on the papal possessions. The victoriously concluded war between Charles and Byzantium put an end to these claims. “The end of the Lombard war was that Italy submitted, King Disederius and his son Adelgiz were expelled from Italy, and the lands taken from the Lombard kings were returned to Hadrian, the ruler of the Roman Church.” It was a triumph for Charles. Istria was also conquered by him. However, of all the gifted territories, 774 the pope received practically nothing except the tiny region of Sabina, an insignificant part in Tuscia (Tuscany). With all this, Charles fully supported the Roman throne, stood guard over the faith and showed constant signs of attention to its head, who approved all the plans and actions of his new ruler.

The defeat of Desiderius forced his ally and son-in-law Tassion to rely only on his own forces, which were not so great as to enter into open confrontation with Charles. “At the instigation of his wife, the daughter of King Desiderius, who wanted, with the help of her husband, to avenge the expulsion of her father by concluding an alliance with the Huns... to show disobedience... The indignant king, not wanting to endure such insolence, gathered an army, sent it to Bavaria,... Charles decided... to find out through their ambassadors about the Duke's intentions. But he, not considering further resistance useful for his people, humbly expressed his submission...” Therefore, Tassilon renews the oath once given to King Pepin, but enters into a conspiracy with the enemies of Charles in southern Italy and secretly agrees on joint actions with wild nomads - the Avars against the Franks. Karl finds out about this. In 787, he demands immediate personal appearance from the Bavarian Duke. Thassilon dodges. Then the king surrounds Bavaria with troops from all sides. Thassilon, realizing the hopelessness of the situation, comes to Charles and once again takes an oath of allegiance, but this can no longer save the Duke. In 788, he was summoned to the General Diet, where the Franks unanimously sentenced the rebel to death, Charles commuted the sentence, replacing death with the tonsure of Tassilon and his family. “Tassilon, summoned to the king, was retained by him, and the duke’s province was handed over to the counts for administration.”

Now the king is entirely occupied with the conquest of the Saxons and seeks to victoriously end the war with them - the longest and most brutal of all Charles’s wars. “After the end of the Italian affairs, the Saxon war resumed again, as if interrupted (772 - 804).”

The Saxon tribes inhabited a vast area between the lower Rhine and the Elbe. The Saxons did not know state power, although they had separate social groups. The top of society were the Edelings, or nobles - the clan nobility; then came the bulk of the free population - freelings: the lowest were dependent producers or slaves. Ethnically, the Saxons were also heterogeneous. In the west, to the mouth of the Weser, lived the Westphals - the closest neighbors of the Franks; in the center of the country lived tribes who had the common name of the Angrarians, to the east of them, to the Elbe, stretched the lands of the Ostphals, the northernmost part of Saxony was occupied by the Nordalbings. “And so, a war began with them, which lasted 33 years with great bitterness on both sides, but still to the greater harm of the Saxons than the Franks.” Since 772 up to 804 With short breaks, the grueling and stubborn war dragged on. “It was the longest and most cruel and cost the Frankish people the greatest losses... for the Saxons... did not consider it dishonorable to violate and desecrate both divine and human laws. I can’t count how many times they, defeated... submitted to the king,... promised to no longer worship demons and accept Christian faith. But they broke their word;..."

Frankish troops ravaged Saxon settlements and temples, took numerous hostages and left strong garrisons in hastily built fortresses. But when the main Frankish troops left Saxony, the Saxons again and again disobeyed. All the successes of the conquerors were nullified. It was necessary to start all over again. On Charles's first campaign in 772. In Saxony, the Franks destroyed the fortress of Eresburg, overthrew the pagan shrine of Irminsul and took hostages. "772. King Charles was with his troops in Saxony and destroyed their shrine, which was called Irminsul." Hike 775 differed from the previous one only in that before leaving enemy territory, the king left strong garrisons in Eresburg and Sigiburg. "775. There was King Charles with his troops in Saxony, devastated it, bringing great destruction to it, and conquered the fortresses called Eresburg and Sigiburg, and installed a garrison there.”

However, the Saxons continue to attack the border territories of the Franks. “There were other causes which contributed to the daily disturbance of the peace. Our borders (the Franks) and theirs (the Saxons), on level ground, were almost contiguous, with the exception of a few points where the Frankish fields were clearly separated from the Saxon ones either by extensive forests or intermediate mountain ranges; on the adjacent borders murders, robberies and fires alternated.”

The disobedience of the Saxons forced Charles to change tactics. He seeks to create a fortified line - a border “mark” that protects against enemy raids in the future. “...the fight against the Saxons was almost continuous, Charles placed garrisons in convenient places along the border with them...”. In 776 he again fortifies Eresburg and Sigiburg, adding to them the newly built Carlsberg. The king leaves priests in the border zone who are supposed to convert the pagan Saxons to the faith of Christ. "776. King Charles...conquered most of Saxony; and the Saxons turned to the faith of Christ, and countless numbers of them were baptized.”

However, the leader of the Westphalian nobility, Widukind, unites around himself for further resistance to the Saxon conquerors - the Westphals. Charles's response was to continue the war until complete victory over the rebellious. On a hike 780g. Charles's troops advanced to the Elbe - the border between the Saxons and Slavs. At the same time, the king led numerous priests with him, wanting to Christianize all of Saxony. His main assistant in this was the Anglo-Saxon, Doctor of Theology Villegard. "780. Lord King Charles again went with an army to Saxony and reached the great river Elbe, and all the Saxons submitted to him, and he took various hostages, both free and lithic, and he divided this country between bishops, priests and abbots, so that they baptized and preached here; and also a huge number of pagan Wends and Frisians believed.” In 782 Charles divided the not yet conquered Saxony into administrative districts, at the head of which he placed counts, including from the local nobility. Thus, through Christianization and bringing it under the French administrative system, Charles included Saxony in his possessions. "782. And King Charles convened a great meeting of his army in Saxony in Lippspiering and installed counts over it from among the most noble Saxons.”

Arrived secretly in 782. From refuge in Denmark, Widukind again gathered like-minded people. An uprising broke out. The Saxons who accepted the new faith were beaten and their temples were destroyed. Charles's dignitaries, sent to pacify the uprising, approached the Weser. At Mount Zuntal, the rebels gave them a battle that turned into a massacre. Karl had never experienced such defeat before. “And when he learned that they (the Saxons) had again fallen away from the faith and gathered together, led by Widukind, to revolt, he returned to Saxony...” His revenge was terrible. B783 he immediately gathered an army, immediately appeared at the lower reaches of the Weser, summoned the Saxon elders, who were supposed to hand over the perpetrators of the “rebellion.” Widukind managed to escape back to Denmark. The trembling elders named 4,500 of their countrymen, who, by order of Charles, were brought to Verdun and beheaded. “...and the war began with the rebels,...and the Franks fought with the Saxons and by the grace of Christ they won, and many thousands were killed by the Saxons, even more than before.” “This bloody action was purely political in nature. She showed the population what awaits them in case of further disobedience.”

“The next three years (783 - 785) Charles gave almost entirely to Saxony. He beat the Saxons in open battles and punitive raids, took hundreds of hostages, whom he took out of the country, and destroyed the villages and farms of the rebellious.” Winter 784 -785. He spent time in Weser, and in the spring he moved to Eresburg. From Eresburg, Charles several times sent flying detachments across the whole of Saxony, clearing roads, tearing down enemy fortifications, and exterminating those who resisted. He began negotiations with Widukind, which successfully ended with Widukind’s arrival to the king in Attigny and his baptism, and Charles himself was the godfather. “Submitting to him, the Saxons again accepted Christianity, which they had previously rejected. After peace was established and the riots ceased, the king returned home. Widukind, the initiator of all evils and the inspirer of intrigues, came with his followers to the palace of Attigny and was baptized there, and Mr. Charles was his successor and honored him with magnificent gifts.”

In 793 An uprising broke out again, the Saxons tried to conduct joint actions with all the enemies of the Franks - Frisians, Avars, Slavs. “...the Saxons, turning away from Christianity, deceiving God and the lord king, who showed them many favors, united with the pagan peoples surrounding them. Having sent their envoys to the Avars, they tried to rebel - first of all against God, and then against the king and Christians; All the churches that were within their borders they devastated, destroyed and burned, and, driving out the bishops and priests who were placed over them, they captured some, killed others and again returned completely to the worship of idols.”

The rebels destroyed churches and killed priests. The Frankish garrisons were killed. In the autumn of the same year, Charles and his army arrived in Saxony. During 794 - 799. he waged a merciless war, accompanied by massive seizures of hostages and prisoners, with their subsequent resettlement as serfs in interior areas states. “Not allowing any of their tricks to go unpunished. Charles, leading personally or sending an army under the command of his counts, avenged the treason and imposed a worthy punishment, until, finally, having crushed and subjugated to his power all who resisted, he resettled ten thousand people ... together with their wives and children in different regions Gauls of Germany (804)". Up to a third of the country's inhabitants were resettled. In the fight against the Saxons, Charles actively used the help of the long-time enemies of the Saxons - the Slavs - the Obodrites. “...our Slavs, who are called the Obodrites, led by the envoys of the lord king, rose up against those Saxons who live on the northern bank of the Elbe, devastated their possessions and burned them... and despite the fact that the Obodrits were pagans, they were helped by the faith of Christians and the lord king and they defeated the Saxons..."

The last campaign in the Saxon war was the military campaign of 796,799, which Charles carried out together with his sons. "796. That year, King Charles was in Saxony with his two sons, namely Charles and Louis, and he walked around the Saxon lands...” “...King Charles captured many Saxons with their wives and children, settling them in various regions of his state, and divided their land among his faithful, namely between bishops, priests, counts and other vassals, and he built an amazing church there in Paderborn magnitude, and ordered it to be illuminated, and after that he returned in peace to the Aachen Palace, and stayed there.” The king himself did not show much activity in this campaign. He sent Karl the Young to complete the battle in Nordalbingia and then returned victorious to France.

In second place in terms of duration and difficulty is Charles’s war with the Avars. The Franks encountered them immediately after the subjugation of Bavaria. The Avars were closely associated with the enemies of the Franks, the Lombards, Saxons, and Bavarians. The war proceeded with varying degrees of success, and the French king had to mobilize all his forces and put the best commanders in the first ranks in order to successfully resist the nomads. “The king himself led, however, only one expedition, ... but entrusted the leadership of the rest to his son Pepin, the rulers of the regions, as well as counts and special commissioners.”

In 795 Having doubled their army through an alliance with the southern Slavs, the Franks largely defeated the enemy, capturing rich booty. “It is impossible to point out another war declared by the Franks, during which they could acquire so much and become rich.” Charles entrusted his young son Pepin, the nominal king of Italy, to finish what he started, for whom the most experienced military leaders, of course, fought. “Thanks to the active orders of these individuals, a limit was put to the war in the eighth year.” The Avars, realizing the hopelessness of resistance, having killed their ruler Kagan and his main advisers, decided to submit to Pepin, but the young king did not accept them, but began to destroy and ruin everything in his path, putting the Avars to flight. “How many battles were fought, how much blood was shed can be judged by the fact that not a single person remained alive in Pannonia, and the place where the Kagan’s royal residence was was devastated to the point that there were no traces of human life left there. All the nobles of the Huns died in this war, and all their glory disappeared."

Karl calculated everything accurately: his son was proclaimed a great strategist and savior of the fatherland. A whole legion of bishops and priests was sent after the army to Christianize the defeated.

The capture of Italy, Bavaria, Saxony, and finally Avaria brought the Franks closer to their new neighbors, the Slavs. The Slavs, like their neighbors the Saxons, lived in a communal tribal system at the stage of its decomposition. They had a tribal nobility, princes appeared who stood at the head of tribal unions. Charles's relations with the Slavic tribes developed differently. In the war with the Saxons, he often relied on the support of the Slavs - the Abodrites, so that the Franks called them “their Slavs.” Karl was so pleased with them that he confirmed the Slavic prince Drazhko as the Grand Duke and handed over Nordalbingia to the Abodrites.

Charles’s relationship with another Slavic tribal union, the Wiltsy, who were famous for their ferocity and intolerance, was different. The Vilians were constantly at odds with the Abodrites. “...a war began with the Slavs, who in our language are imposed on Viltsy, and in their language - Velataby.” In 789 Charles undertook a grand campaign to the country of the Wilts. “The reason for the war was that the Wilians were constantly harassing the Abodrites, longtime allies of the Franks, with raids and could not be restrained by orders alone.” The Franks, Saxons, Frisians, and Lusatian Serbs took part in the campaign. A severe blow was dealt to the Lyutichs. Despite stubborn resistance, the Wiltsy were defeated, and the Capital surrendered. Their prince Dragovit submitted and gave hostages. Then Charles appointed Dragovit as Grand Duke of the Wilts. “With just one campaign, in which Charles led, he tamed them so much that in the future they no longer considered it possible to evade obedience.”

Relations with the Lusatian Serbs were not so dramatic. Karl either carried out military incursions into their territory, or took them as allies against the Wilians.

The conclusion suggests itself that in the 70-90s. VIII century Karl did not make any serious attempt to establish himself in the Slavic lands.

While waging endless wars in the east, Charles made attempts to expand his possessions in the west. “Charles also conquered the Britons living in the west... and who did not want to obey him: the army sent by the king forced the Britons to give hostages and do everything that was ordered.” His troops repeatedly invaded Brittany and imposed tribute on the Celtic tribes of the Britons. In the 70s a fortified zone of the march was created there with the cities of Rennes, Tours, and Angers.

In 799 Charles organized a large expedition to Brittany, but was never able to completely conquer it. She retained her religious customs and characteristics.

In 778 At the head of a large military force, Charles invaded Spain, but was ambushed by the freedom-loving Basque tribe of Vaxons in the Roncelvalles gorge and was defeated. “When the army was moving in a stretched formation, as the mountain gorges forced them to do, the Basques, setting up an ambush on the tops of the rocks... attacked the detachment from above... killed every one of them, after which, having plundered the convoy, under the cover of the falling night they quickly scattered in different directions.” Then Charles began to strengthen the regions of Aquitaine and Vasconia closest to the Pyrenees. Since 779 settled vassals there, and in 781. allocated Aquitaine as a separate kingdom and gave it to his youngest son Louis, who, at the behest of his father, carried out a series of campaigns across the Pyrenees. The Spanish March was founded - a fortified region with the cities of Gerona, Urgel, Vica. In 801 Barcelona, which became the center of the brand, was conquered in 806. Pamplona, and by the end of Charles's reign his possessions extended to the Ebro River.

The result of numerous wars was the territorial increase of the Frankish state almost twice during the reign of Charles. “Through these wars, the kingdom of the Franks, received from his father Pepin, already great and strong, Charles expanded and almost doubled.” Moreover, his influence extended far beyond the borders of the state. "Charles increased the glory of his reign by acquiring the friendship of certain kings and nations." In the Muslim east, Caliph Harun al-Rashid sought an alliance with him. “Aaron (Harun al Rashid, Caliph of Baghdat), the king of the Persians who owned the entire east... was so friendly towards Charles that he preferred his love to the friendship of all the kings and princes on the globe and considered him alone worthy of respect and gifts.”

The name Charles was pronounced respectfully in Austria and Scotland. “He entered into such close relations with Gadephonsus, king of Gacilia and Asturias (the Austrian king), that the latter, when sending a letter or ambassadors to Charles, ordered to call himself in these cases nothing other than loyal to him. He knew how to subordinate even the kings of cattle (i.e., Scottish) to his will with generosity so that they called him nothing less than master, and spoke of themselves as subjects and slaves.” The Christians of Alexandria and Carthage took advantage of the generosity of the king of the Franks.

In 800 Pope Leo III proclaimed Charles emperor, “...King Charles...obeying God, and also at the request of the priests and the entire Christian people, on the same Christmas (800) of our Lord Jesus Christ, accepted the title of emperor along with the consecration from the lord Pope Leo.” This is how a global event took place. A new French Empire and its emperor Charlemagne emerged.

The incident caused a sharply negative reaction from the imperial authorities of Byzantium. “...the title of emperor adopted by Charles aroused strong suspicion in them, as if Charles were thereby revealing plans to take away the empire from them.” Although “The Greeks and Romans always looked with distrust at the power of the Franks ... he (Charles) entered into a close alliance with them so that there would be no reason for a break between both sides.” Byzantium 10 years later recognized the imperial title of Charlemagne.

“Such was, as can be seen, the activity of Charles, aimed at expanding, protecting and beautifying the state.”

1.2 Government system

Before the conquest of Galia, the Franks had not yet developed an organization of government. Supreme power belonged to military leaders, public and judicial matters were decided at public meetings with the participation of all male soldiers. This primitive device turned out to be unsuitable for organizing domination over the conquered territories and their population. During the reign of Charlemagne, the Frankish state significantly strengthened and expanded, turning into an empire. “...Charles united into one empire the peoples who lived from the Ebro River to the Elbe and from the Apennines to the German (North) Sea, i.e., most of the lands that were once part of the Western Roman Empire.”

It was necessary to create a system of government for these vast territories and, by persuasion and practical measures, to induce the Saxons, Gascons, Italians and Franks to accept the authority of the king, to bring to the attention of all the peoples living in the kingdom the fundamental principles of royal government, as well as the duties that it entailed on the king's subjects.

Charlemagne continued and developed the traditions laid down by his father Pepin, “It is desirable for us that the decrees approved good memory our father at meetings and synods, acted as before,” followed the paths outlined by him. “... he managed to make the most of the political results achieved by his predecessors and complete the work they started.” However, the traditions of transferring royal power are changing and acquiring new meaning. Anointing means that the king is the chosen one of the Lord, i.e. the procedure for choosing the king by magnates and clergy ceases to exist. Charlemagne and his family, worthy of divine election, were now to rule the Frankish empire according to the will of the Lord. “Continuously reading “The City of God” by Bl. Augustine, ... Charles dreamed of a state structure where there would be two powers - secular and spiritual - but with the indispensable dominance of secular power.”

The fulfillment of his duties by the king ceased to be his personal matter; it now concerned the entire Christian people of the Franks as a whole. “This people was also a Christian people, namely a Christian community, a church where there is a place for everyone, clergy and laity, rich and poor. In the same sermons, praises (Laudes) are offered to the king, his descendants, and the entire Frankish people.”

If the king was chosen by God, it means that God did it for the good and salvation of the people, all the people he chose. “...he stands between God and the people.” “Happy is the people inspired and led by a true leader and preacher, whose right hand raises the victorious sword, and whose lips make the trumpet of the Catholic faith sound.” The aristocracy, the most powerful political force in the Frankish world, found itself - at least for a time - removed from influencing the election of the king.

The king, as God's anointed, had certain obligations towards the Christian people, namely to maintain peace and universal harmony between those people who are brothers in faith. “And may peace, harmony and unity reign among all the Christian people, and may bishops, abbots, counts, judges, great and small of this world, abide in peace, for observing peace is the greatest joy that we can give to the Lord.”

Charlemagne's conquests

Domestic policy

Charlemagne's domestic policy is aimed mainly at
centralization of public administration (this is especially pronounced
manifested itself in the organization of regional and local government, in
introduction of the institution of royal envoys, etc.).
The most important reason for all the successes of Charlemagne was the support
which he used among the nobility. Karl continued distributing benefits,
honorary positions, gifts. The political system created under
Karla, the basis of which was the strengthening of vassal ties,
contributed to the strengthening of the nobility. Vassals' duty to serve
the king was formalized by treaties and oaths of allegiance; oath to
Loyalty had to be given even by simple free people, from 789
lists of those who took the oath were compiled.
Charlemagne maintained an alliance with both the pope and the local
church hierarchy. Providing energetic support
spread of Christianity, patronizing the clergy and
setting tithes for him, being on the best terms with
pope, Charles retained for himself, however, full power in the church
administration: he appointed bishops and abbots, convened spiritual
councils, made decisions regarding church affairs at the diets

Domestic policy

Charlemagne carried out a new military reform. Now serve in
Only relatively wealthy free people were obliged to armies
landowners who had 3-4 plots. All me wealthy people
primarily free peasants, had to unite in
groups and, at the common expense, field one armed warrior.
Karl's cultural aspirations were connected with politics - culture
The Frankish state had to correspond to the name
"empire". Karl himself was quite educated for his, in many ways
barbarian times: “Not content with just his native speech, he
tried to study foreign languages. He studied Latin so well that
usually spoke it as if it were his native language, but in Greek he
understood more than he spoke.”
Cultural reforms began with the establishment of a single
the canonical text of the Bible, and were generally carried out in alliance with
church.
Under him, the study of classical Latin was revived and encouraged
annalistics, and from the pens of talented courtiers poured out a whole
a stream of imitative poetry.

Foreign policy

Of all the wars that Charles waged, the first he undertook was Aquitaine,
started by his father, but not finished. Karl could have ended this war
quickly, during the lifetime of his brother Carloman. And Karl finished
thanks to endurance and constancy an excellent ending is what
planned to do
Having put things in order in Aquitaine and ended that war, Charles, heeding
requests and pleas of the Bishop of the city of Rome Hadrian, undertook
war against the Lombards. He returned everything taken from the Romans, suppressed
Ruodgaz, ruler of the Duchy of Frioul, who plotted the coup,
subjugated all of Italy to his power and placed the king at the head
conquered Italy by his son Pepin.
After the end of that war the Saxon War began again,
seemed already completed. None of the Franks started by the people
wars were not so long, so terrible and requiring so much
efforts, for the Saxons, who, like almost everyone living in Germany
peoples are warlike by nature, devoted to the veneration of demons and
are opponents of our religion did not consider it impious either
violate or transgress both divine and human
laws.

Foreign policy

The Bavarian War, which began suddenly, ended quickly. She
was caused by both the arrogance and carelessness of the Duke
Thassilon, who, succumbing to the persuasion of his wife (the king’s daughter
Desideria, who wanted, with the help of her husband, to take revenge for the expulsion of her father),
entered into an alliance with the Huns, former neighbors of the Bavarians to the east, and
tried not only to disobey the king’s orders, but also
provoke Charles to war.
After those unrest were settled, another war was started
with the Slavs, who are usually called Viltsy. Cause of war
was that the encouragers, who were once allies
Franks, Wilts were worried about frequent raids and it was impossible for them
restrain with orders.
With just one campaign, which he himself led, Karl
defeated and tamed the Velatabs, who subsequently believed that they could not
one should no longer refuse to carry out the king's orders.
The war with the Slavs was followed by the largest, with the exception of
Saxon, the war of all that Charles waged, namely the war started
against Avars or Huns. Charles waged this war more cruelly than
others, and with the longest preparations. Karl himself, however,
conducted only one campaign in Pannonia, and entrusted the rest of the campaigns
hold to his son Pepin, the prefects of the provinces, as well as the counts
and even ambassadors.

Charlemagne and Pepin the Hunchback. Copy of the 10th century. WITH
original made between
829 and 836 in the Fulda Monastery.

Foreign policy

All the noble Huns died in that war, all their glory
stopped. All the money and accumulated over time
the treasures were captured by the Franks. In human memory
there was not a single war left that arose against the Franks, in
which the Franks would become so rich and increase their
wealth.
Such were the wars waged by the king in various parts
land for 47 years. In those wars he so thoroughly
expanded the already quite large and powerful
kingdom of the Franks, received from Pepin's father, which added
almost double the amount of land to it. The glory of your
He also increased his reign thanks to the friendships he established
with some kings and peoples. Alfonso, King of Galicia
and Asturias, he tied such a close alliance that he, when
sent letters or ambassadors to Charles, ordered to identify himself
nothing less than “belonging to the king.” He bought this
the favor of the Scots kings, captivated by his generosity, which
they called him nothing less than master, and themselves - him
subjects and slaves.

Collapse of Charlemagne's Empire

Created as a result of the conquest of weak tribes by the Fraks and
nationalities, the empire was a fragile state
formation and disbanded shortly after the death of its founder.
The reasons for its collapse were the lack of economic and
ethnic unity and the growth of the power of large feudal lords.
Forced unification of ethnically alien peoples
could only be maintained under a strong central government.
Already during the life of Charlemagne, symptoms of its decline emerged:
The centralized control system began to degenerate into a personal seigneurial system, and the counts began to fall out of obedience. Intensified
separatism on the outskirts.
In 817, at the request of the grandchildren of Charlemagne, the first
chapter. But the ambitions remained unsatisfied, and the
a period of internecine wars.
In 843, an agreement was concluded in Verdun on the division of Charles's Empire
Great between his grandchildren - Lothar (France and Northern Italy),
Louis the German (East Frankish State) and Charles
Bald (West Frankish state).
By the beginning of the 10th century. the imperial title lost its meaning and disappeared.

The internal policy of Charlemagne is aimed mainly at the centralization of government (this was especially evident in the organization of regional and local government, in the introduction of the institution of royal envoys, etc.).

The most important reason for all of Charlemagne's successes was the support he enjoyed from the nobility. Karl continued distributing benefits, honorary positions, gifts. Einhard. Op. op. P. 112 The political system created under Charles, the basis of which was the strengthening of vassal ties, contributed to the strengthening of the nobility. The obligation of vassals to serve the king was formalized by treaties and oaths of allegiance; Simple free people also had to take the oath of allegiance; since 789, lists of those who took the oath were compiled.

Le Goff says that the church council of Tours, convened in 811, noted: “In many places by different means the property of poor people is greatly reduced, and this is the property of those who are free, but live under the rule of powerful persons." Further, Le Goff says that the new owners of this property are church magnates and latifundists. Le Goff cites as an example a polyptic composed in ninth century, at the behest of Hirmion, Abbot of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, an inventory of land holdings and the duties of land holders. It describes twenty-four possessions, nineteen of which were in the Paris region, between Mantes and Château-Thierry. This economic power opened up the land magnates' path to public power largely thanks to the process begun by Charlemagne and his heirs. As already mentioned, Charlemagne increased the number of beneficiary donations, obliged him to take an oath and enter into vassal relations. This was done with the aim of strengthening the Frankish state, Charles counted on vassals to tie to himself not only significant people, land magnates, but also smaller landowners, so he encouraged his vassals to also have vassals, and obliged all free ones to choose a lord. Karl's actions had almost the opposite effect. Charlemagne's capitulary of 811 states that "the poor complain of the deprivation of their property, they complain equally of bishops, and of abbots, and of trustees, of counts and their centurions." The peasants went bankrupt due to church tithes, heavy taxes, and high court fines.

Charlemagne maintained an alliance with both the pope and the local church hierarchy. Providing energetic assistance to the spread of Christianity, patronizing the clergy and establishing tithes for them, being on the best terms with the pope, Charles retained for himself, however, full power in church administration: he appointed bishops and abbots, convened spiritual councils, and made decisions at the diets regarding church affairs. Karl himself was diligently engaged in science; ordered the compilation of a grammar of the popular language, in which he established the Frankish names of the months and winds; ordered to collect folk songs. He surrounded himself with scientists (Alcuin, Paul the Deacon, Einhard, Raban the Maurus, Theodulf) and, using their advice and assistance, sought to educate the clergy and the people. In particular, he took care of the organization of schools in churches and monasteries; At his court, he established a kind of academy for the education of his children, as well as courtiers and their sons.

Charles made an attempt to reform monasticism in accordance with the Benedictine Rule; at the same time, a reform of the liturgy and the compilation of a single collection of sermons was carried out. In general, the church’s attitude towards him was servile; this is evidenced by the fact that Pope Leo III, after his election to the papal throne, sent Charles the keys of St. Peter and the papal banner as a sign of recognition of his power. Sidorov A.I. The Rise and Fall of the Carolingians - M., 1999. P. 112 Charles became a defender of orthodoxy in the west, he wanted to protest the decision of the Council of Nicaea in 787.

Regarding the church, Charles issued many capitularies. One of them says that they do not cause offense or robbery to the holy churches of God, or orphans, or pilgrims, since the sovereign emperor himself, after God and his saints, is declared their protector and patron. In many acts of capitulation, Charlemagne reminds counts and bishops that their behavior should be pious: let them forgive debts to their debtors, ransom prisoners, help the oppressed, protect widows and orphans.

Charlemagne carried out a new military reform. Now only relatively wealthy free landowners who had 3-4 plots were required to serve in the army. All less wealthy people, primarily free peasants, had to unite into groups and, at the common expense, field one armed warrior.

Thus, military power was strengthened by regularizing the collection of militia, and Charlemagne's borders were strengthened by the military organization of marches ruled by margraves. He destroyed the power of the people's dukes, which seemed dangerous to the king.

After the military reform carried out by Karl, four peasants had to put together one warrior. Such a practice was not only ruinous in itself for the peasantry, but also separated them from the economy for a long time, and since Charlemagne pursued an active policy of conquest, such military practice was constant. Ruined peasants gave their possessions to land magnates in exchange for patronage and protection; the practice of transferring land to precaria, which began under the Merovingians, became especially widespread - land ownership that the tycoon transferred to the bankrupt peasant subject to the fulfillment of certain duties: military service, corvée or payment of quitrents. - this contributed to the strengthening of land magnates, it is precisely with this that, as Le Goff writes, “Since 811, Charlemagne has complained that some refuse military service under the pretext that their lord is not called up for it and they must stay with him." The situation was aggravated by such a phenomenon as immunity, which consisted in the fact that the magnate in the territories belonging to him received the rights to collect taxes and taxes, enjoyed the supreme judicial power and was the leader of the military militia convened on his territory. Unable to interfere with this process, the state legalized it with special charters, according to which the immune lands were released from subordination to the counts. This practice, which became widespread under the Carolingians, began, however, back in Merovingian times. In addition, after the judicial reform of Charlemagne, free peasants were deprived of an active role in the court, therefore they could not prevent the strengthening of magnates through state judiciary. “The freedom of these people ceases to imply full rights.” Le Golf. Civilization of the Medieval West - M., 1992. P. 260 They often united and raised rebellions, however, this was ineffective, and they could not stop the “offensive” of the magnates. Charles, in many of his capitularies, ordered that the oppression of the peasants should not be allowed, however, this did not have the desired effect. If we talk about the economy related to the processes described above, then during the reign of Charles - from the end of the 8th to the middle of the 9th century, the prevailing trend was economic growth, as evidenced by the existence of a surplus of products on large estates, which was sold on the market, which is confirmed by some revival of the the Roman roots of the cities, compared with their decline during the Late Roman Empire. The number of mints increased several times, which prompted Charles to limit the right of cities to mint coins. The growth of the money supply indicates a large scale of trade.

Connecting with the issue of lands, on the orders of Charles, swamps were drained, forests were cut down, monasteries and cities were built, as well as magnificent palaces and churches (for example, in Aachen, Ingelheim).

The construction of a canal between Rednitz and Altmühl, which would have connected the Rhine and Danube, the North and Black Seas, started in 793, remained unfinished.

In 794, on the site of the thermal resort of the Celts and Romans in Aachen, Charles began construction of a huge palace complex, completed in 798. Having first turned into the winter residence of Charles, Aachen gradually became a permanent residence, and from 807 - the permanent capital of the empire .

Karl strengthened the denier, which began to weigh 1.7 grams. Charles's fame spread far beyond the borders of his dominions; embassies from foreign lands often appeared at his court, such as the embassy of Harun al-Rashid in 798.

Charles's cultural aspirations were connected with politics - the culture of the Frankish state had to correspond to the name "empire". Charles himself was very educated for his, in many ways still barbarian, time: “Not content with just his native speech, he tried to study foreign languages. He studied Latin so that he usually spoke it as if it were his native language, but he understood more in Greek, than he said." Le Golf. Op. op. p. 280

Cultural reforms began with the establishment of a single canonical text of the Bible, and were generally carried out in alliance with the church.

Charlemagne deliberately encouraged secular culture, inviting philologists, architects, musicians and astronomers from all over the empire, as well as from Ireland and England, to his capital Aachen. Under the leadership of the great Anglo-Saxon scientist Alcuin, who was actually Charles’ “minister of education” of the empire (in 796, having retired from the court, he became Abbot of Tours), and with the participation of such famous figures as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Eingard and many others (all of them were part of the informal “Palace Academy”) the education system was actively revived, which received the name of the Carolingian Renaissance.

Karl himself took an active part in the works of the academy he founded: on his initiative, the correct text of the Bible was compiled; the monarch collected the most ancient German legends and songs (the collection, unfortunately, is almost lost); he instructed scientists to compile a grammar of his native Frankish language (this command was not carried out).

Under him, the study of classical Latin was revived, annalistics was encouraged, and a whole stream of imitative poetry poured out from the pens of talented courtiers. Karl himself took grammar lessons from Alcuin and began to compile a grammar of the Germanic language. He also worked on correcting the texts of the Gospels and, already in his old age, tried to learn the difficult art of calligraphy (the mention of this fact in Einhard’s biography of Karl was the basis for the false idea that he allegedly did not know how to write). The collection of traditional short German heroic poems he ordered, unfortunately, has not survived. New schools were opened everywhere at monasteries and churches, and it was envisaged that the children of the poor would also receive an education. Under the leadership of Alcuin, scriptoria (rooms for correspondence and storage of manuscripts) were revived or established in monasteries, where a magnificent font called “Carolingian minuscule” was used for correspondence, and copying was carried out at such a rapid pace that the lion’s share of the entire heritage of antiquity has reached us through the efforts of that very era. The impulse given to learning by Charlemagne continued to operate for a whole century after his death.

Reign of Charles X (1824-1830)

A. E. Roginskaya. "Essays on the history of France in the 17th-19th centuries."
Publishing house of the Institute of International Relations, Moscow, 1958.

Presented with some abbreviations

The accession to the throne of Charles X foreshadowed an openly reactionary political course. Charles was 67 years old when he became King of France. This was a "man of the past."
From the very first days of his reign, the king began to emphasize his commitment to the “old times” and his reluctance to make any compromises with the “regicides.” In his speech from the throne, he announced his intention to introduce "improvements required by the sacred interests of religion" as well as new laws designed to protect "the nobles plundered by the revolution."
The king did not remember the charter. The threat of new persecution hidden in these words was not long in coming true.
In April 1825, a law was published that established almost unlimited domination of the church in the field of public education and culture. The confiscation and burning of “harmful” books began. A wide road was again opened for the activities of the Jesuits.
A huge explosion of indignation in bourgeois circles was caused by another law, published after the first, the “law on the billion-dollar reward of emigrants” (1825), according to which all former land owners received a monetary reward 20 times more than the income from those confiscated from them. in 1790 lands. Thus, the Duke of Orleans, who returned to France with the Bourbons, received 16 million francs, Lafayette received 456 thousand francs, the Duke of Choiseul - 1.1 million francs, La Rochefoucauld - 428 thousand francs.
To obtain the required billion, the government announced the conversion of the five percent state rent to three percent, which sensitively infringed on the interests of the bourgeoisie. The bourgeois opposition immediately raised a cry about the “robbery of the nation.”
In 1826, a press law was passed, subjecting the entire press to severe censorship and ex officio prosecution (that is, at the initiative of the authorities, without a complaint or demand for trial on the part of the offended person).
The reactionary activities of the government contributed to the rapid growth of the bourgeois opposition, in which scientists, writers, and publicists played a prominent role. The opposition gradually captured all layers of the bourgeoisie. The commercial and industrial crisis of 1827 intensified the activity of the bourgeois opposition. Voices against the government and against the Bourbon monarchy as a whole began to grow louder.
The bourgeoisie of all stripes began to unite in their struggle against the noble-clerical policies of the Bourbons.
The University of Paris became the center of resistance to clericalism. At this time, Moliere's Tartuffe, with its criticism of religious bigotry and hypocrisy, which, by a strange coincidence, the government did not think of banning, enjoyed great success; Bérenger's politically poignant songs became widespread. The writings of the enlighteners of the 18th century were a powerful weapon against Catholic reaction.
Opposition sentiments also captured the chamber. This forced the government to dissolve it (1827). However, new elections, against the expectations of the government clique, strengthened the opposition in the chamber and gave a minority to supporters of the ministry. This was a serious warning to the government. Charles X considered it necessary to retreat: he resigned Villel (who had headed the ministry since 1821), who personified the reactionary course, and appointed a new, less reactionary cabinet headed by the moderate royalist Martignac (January 1828-August 1829).
Trying to “calm minds,” Martignac carried out some half-hearted reforms, somewhat limiting the influence of the church in the field of public education and weakening censorship. The liberal bourgeoisie was not satisfied with the activities of Martignac and opposed him with sharp criticism.
The ultra-royalists, for their part, were also unhappy, believing that Martignac was “undermining the foundations” and “ruining the state.” Charles X was of the same opinion. Taking advantage of the increased opposition to the government on the part of the liberals, Charles X resigned Martignac and again created an ultra-royalist ministry headed by the reactionary Prince Polignac (August 1829-July 1830), who also received the portfolio of Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Polignac belonged to a family that was extremely unpopular during the Revolution: his mother was a friend of Marie Antoinette, and the whole family was close to the court of Louis XVI. Under Napoleon, Polignac participated in the royalist conspiracy of Cadoudal, aimed at killing Bonaparte, and was sentenced to death, but was pardoned. In 1815, he publicly opposed the charter and for a long time did not agree to swear allegiance to it. He was a narrow-minded and very arrogant man.
All sections of the bourgeoisie, as well as the royalist constitutionalists, expressed loud indignation at the ultra-reactionary composition of Polignac's ministry. “Thousands of ominous rumors are circulating in the capital,” one contemporary wrote in his diary, “and are causing confusion. They are afraid of a new strengthening of oppression, they consider new violations of the charter possible... However, sad experience has taught us that the people also know how to carry out coups d’etat.”
The fear of a new revolution in France was shared by such an experienced diplomat as Metternich. “The change in the ministry is of great importance,” he said, having learned about its new composition. “This event has the character of a counter-revolution.”
Discontent in bourgeois circles assumed such proportions that the king did not dare to convene the chambers for a long time. The ministry was also temporarily inactive, taking stock of the current situation.
Finally, on March 2, 1830, the next session of parliament was opened. Charles X decided to take a sharp course to suppress any opposition. In his speech from the throne, the king stated: “Peers of the kingdom, deputies of departments, I have no doubt about your readiness to assist my good intentions reject the insidious suggestions of malicious persons. If criminal designs place obstacles in the way of my government, which I do not want to talk about in advance, I will draw strength to overcome them from my determination to maintain public peace...”
It was a direct challenge and threat. The liberal opposition, outraged by the king's speech, wrote a reply to the king after long debates asking for the resignation of the ministers. This address was signed by 221 deputies (181 were against).
The angry king immediately issued an order that interrupted the session until September 1. "A! “Do you intend to postpone the session?” Talleyrand said to the minister who informed him about this, “in that case, I’m buying myself an estate in Switzerland.” The old diplomat sensed that there was a smell of revolution in the air. However, neither Charles X nor his entourage understood the seriousness of the situation.
The ruling circles of foreign powers followed the activities of the French government with undisguised alarm, realizing that they were fraught with very serious consequences. Metternich once said that he would have worried much less if Prince Polignac had worried more.
Both Russia and England openly expressed serious concern about French affairs. The political myopia of the Restoration government was increased by the success of the colonial war it undertook during this period against Algeria.
French troops hastily advanced through this country; On July 4, 1830 they occupied the city of Algiers. The successful course of the Algerian war strengthened the intention of the king and his entourage to go ahead - to dissolve the chamber, where the opposition raised its head too boldly, and to call new elections.
On May 16, an ordinance was published announcing the dissolution of the chamber and calling for elections and the convening of a new chamber for the August session. This decree caused an explosion of indignation in wide circles of the bourgeoisie.
Even not very far-sighted politicians like Villel understood that the government was on the brink of an abyss. “The monarchy gives the impression of a fortress,” said Villel, “under which mines and countermines are placed in all directions, so that the slightest spark is enough to explode it into the air.” “We are dancing on a volcano,” said another contemporary.
The liberals put forward the slogan of re-election of 221 liberal deputies for the new elections. They mobilized all their forces and conducted a fierce election campaign. As a result, the Liberals achieved the election of 202 deputies from the previous 221; they won 270 seats and the opposition was again in the majority. The ministry suffered a complete defeat: out of 428 elected deputies, only 145 represented the ministerial party.
The election results were a serious warning to the Restoration government. Revolutionary events were brewing.

Reign of Charles X (1824-1830). King Charles X of France

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