Labor as a type of economic resource. Labor resources and personnel of enterprises

The purpose of labor is the production of goods and resources. Motive is everything that motivates a person to work.

Labor is classified according to the presence of a creative component in the work:

1) regulated work, carried out according to given instructions, orders, when the employee does not introduce elements of novelty and creativity into it (alpha labor).

2) creative, innovative work associated with the creation of new ideas, knowledge, images, ideas in all spheres of human life and activity (beta work).

3) There is gamma labor (associated with spiritual activity).

Labor as a process is a type of human activity for the production of goods and resources necessary for consumption in the household, or for economic exchange, or for both and others at the same time.

Labor is considered as the most important economic resource (factor of production). According to the theory of factors of production, these include: labor (number of workers), land (natural resources), capital (buildings), entrepreneurial abilities (type of creative abilities). . Economic resources are associated with income (salary, rent, %, profit).

Economic resources are divided into:

1. natural resources 2. labor potential 3. resources produced by man.

Labor potential determines the possibilities for participation of an individual, a team, an entrepreneur, and society as a whole in the production and exchange of goods. Labor potential is assessed at the level of the individual, team, and society.

State of health, morality, creativity, organization, education, professionalism.

The purpose of labor is the production of goods and resources. Motive is everything that motivates a person to work. The content of labor is the expedient transformation of natural resources and the associated expenditure of time and human energy resources. 2. Methods for studying problems of labor economics. Methods: method of quantitative and qualitative analysis, experimental method, comparative, balance and Delphi method. 3. The place of labor economics in the system of economic sciences.

Labor economics as a scientific discipline is in close interaction with all the named components of the complex science of labor (ergonomics, physiology, psychology, hygiene, sociology, etc.), and is based on the developments and research results of each of these sciences. In practice, there is a constant interpenetration of some scientific disciplines into others, which provides a comprehensive study of all the problems that make up the content of labor economics. However, they are united by the object of study - the work of a person, a work collective and society as a whole. labor economics studies the system of socio-economic relations that develop in the process of labor organization. 4. Evolution of concepts about labor. The original definition of labor as an activity aimed at satisfying material needs dominated during the 20th century. Features of labor as an object of study can be characterized by a special basic provision:

1. Labor is an entire activity to create various goods and services that must be effectively organized.

2. Labor is one of the conditions for the life of a person and society as a whole, as well as a condition for the effective functioning of any organization.

3. Labor cannot act as a commodity, since it is not one. The labor service takes the commodity form.

4. In the process of labor activity, a system of social and labor relations is formed, constituting the core of social relations at the level of the national economy of the region, organization and person.

The modern author B. Genkin, defining labor, focused specifically on activities aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. In his opinion, labor activity can be carried out not only under compulsion, but also according to internal motivation.

In the considered labor relations, one should focus on the concept of social development. The most developed formational concept of social development. Its founders: K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin. The key concept in this approach is the socio-economic formation, covering all aspects of social development. The entire course of history is a natural process of changing socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. K. Marx identified the sixth “Asian mode of production”, it was in the ancient societies of the East (Egypt, China, Mesopotamia),

located in the valleys of large rivers. The formational model includes the following elements: development of production forces, legal relations of public relations, political system. 5. Concept and main characteristics of labor potential. The labor potential of society is the total social ability to work, the potential labor capacity of society. The structure of the labor potential of society includes: the labor potential of the individual; labor potential of the collective of an enterprise, organization, company; labor potential of the industry, region, etc.

The qualitative side of society’s labor potential is characterized by:

the state of health of the working-age population, indicators of its psycho-physiological development;

professional and qualification level of the working population, i.e. the level of general and professional education, the presence of certain knowledge and practical experience and skills;

social and personal characteristics. Quantitative side labor potential is expressed by the size of the working population and working time resources (potential working time fund). Professional educational programs are aimed at solving the problems of consistently increasing professional and general educational levels, training specialists with appropriate qualifications. For quality vocational training workers are influenced by the following factors: professional and social orientation, professional selection; the state of the material and technical base of training;

programs and teaching methods, information support for the learning process; quality of teaching staff; financial support; the quality of trained employees and their motivation and incentives; acquisition of practical skills, adaptation to real working conditions; competition in the labor market;
socio-psychological climate in the team.
The concept of “labor” is used in economic literature in two significantly different meanings: as a labor process and as a type
According to A. Marshall’s definition, work is “any mental and physical effort undertaken partially or wholly with the aim of achieving any result, not counting the satisfaction received directly from the work itself” (emphasis added by B.G. .) [Marshall. T. 1. P. 124]. Noting that in this definition he follows Jevons, who attributed “only painful effort” to work, Marshall emphasizes that “most people work much more than if they worked only because of the immediate satisfaction received from work” [Ibid. ]. Illustrating this idea, he further writes that the peasant works in the garden mainly to obtain a material result, “but the rich man who does the same work, although he may be proud of the fact that he does it well, probably has little interest in getting from it work of saving money" (Ibid.).
Modern authors characterize labor in essentially the same way as Marshall and Jevons. For example, V. Inozemtsev believes that labor is an activity performed “under the direct or indirect influence of external material necessity” [Inozemtsev. P. 15].
Emphasizing the painful, forced side of labor is primarily due to the fact that for thousands of years, material wealth was the result of the efforts of the lower strata of society (slaves, serfs, proletariat), who worked 12-15 hours a day for meager remuneration. Science and art until XVI).
From the middle of the 19th century. class division of labor in Europe and North America begins to change as a result of the first industrial revolution, as well as social revolutions and reforms in France, Germany and other countries. As a result of increased labor productivity and social transformations, the welfare of hired workers increases, the length of the working day decreases, and opportunities for obtaining education and changing types of activity expand. The role of science, art and technological progress in the life of society is significantly increasing.
Over the past 150-200 years, these processes have fundamentally changed the structure of the GDP of developed countries in material, sectoral and professional aspects. The structure of the population has also changed. If in the last century more than two-thirds of the population of England, France, and Germany were workers and peasants, then at present their share does not exceed one-third. The predominant part of the population of developed countries are engineers, scientists, doctors, teachers, cultural figures, entrepreneurs, etc. As calculations show (see Chapter 6), it is those who are engaged in creativity, creating new things, who make the greatest contribution in increasing the national wealth of developed countries.
The results of creative activity depend on the abilities for this type of creativity, as well as on a number of psychological and social factors: passion for work, its importance, conditions, etc. Most effective creative work, which is carried out by inspiration. The essence of this psychological state no one could express it better than A.S. Pushkin. Features of creative activity in science and art are considered in the works of A. Poincaré, J. Parandovsky and others.
For those who are gifted with creative abilities, the process of creativity itself is the most enjoyable part of life. However, creativity is not only pleasure, but also very hard work. Brilliant ideas and images are prepared over days and sometimes years of persistent search and reflection. As V. Mayakovsky wrote, “poetry is the same mining of radium; production per gram, labor per year, you exhaust a single word for the sake of a thousand tons of verbal ore.” The phrase " work time"for a scientist, writer, composer does not make sense. Ideas and images can appear at any time, including in a dream. Studies in science and art determine not so much a profession as a way of life.
The concepts of labor and creative processes are often contrasted. Thus, V. Inozemtsev writes: “The most fundamental motive of creative activity is the individual’s desire to realize himself in a free activity independent of external material conditions” (emphasis added by the author - B. G.) [Inozemtsev. P. 18]. This motive undoubtedly exists, but it can rarely be realized and, more importantly, does not reflect the essence and meaning of creativity.
The nature of the creative process is unknown to us. It is very likely that it is best expressed in the words of Haydn: “It is not from me, it is from above!” [Parandovsky. P. 105]. This is how the composer expressed his delight at the birth of one of the melodies of the oratorio “The Creation of the World.”
Biographies of outstanding scientists (I. Newton, A. Poincaré, A. Einstein, D. I. Mendeleev, etc.) testify to this.
that the intuitive side of creativity in science is no less important than in art. Moments of the birth of fundamentally new scientific ideas can be accompanied by states close to religious ecstasy [Poincaré].
As can be seen from the given characteristics of creativity, its goal is not so much self-expression as the creation of new ideas, images, methods, concepts, etc. And this goal has never been and in the foreseeable future cannot be independent of external material conditions, especially in science, technology, medicine and other fields. Thus, the fruits of creativity of scientists, inventors, artists, writers, performers amount to developed countries a significant part of the national wealth. Works of science and art actively participate in economic exchange. Pushkin expressed this with an aphorism: “Inspiration is not for sale, but you can sell a manuscript.”
Thus, in the economic aspect, creativity should be recognized as one of the types of labor, which, of course, has its own psychological characteristics(as, indeed, any other type of work).
Along with various types creativity, an important role in the development of civilization is played by activities aimed at the spiritual improvement of man. In this area, the way of life also has higher value than in science and art.
Modern economic theory is paying increasing attention to a comprehensive study of human time expenditure, including ensuring material benefits, study, raising children, recreation. In particular, raising children in a family is an example of social useful work, which, on the one hand, brings a lot of joy, and on the other, requires significant effort, which to one degree or another must be compensated by society.
Between those who are engaged in material production, in science, art, and the spiritual sphere, there is a direct or indirect exchange of results of activities both through the market system and through state and public organizations, that is, all the types of labor considered in one way or another participate in economic exchange, which establishes the degree of their usefulness for different people and periods of time.
As can be seen from the above review, the classics economic theory in accordance with the technological and social conditions of their time, they considered the labor process as “painful efforts” undertaken by workers to receive material rewards. The current situation provides grounds for a broader view of the essence of labor. This is determined by the fact that in the 20th century. Creative and spiritual activities are becoming increasingly important, which not only participate in economic exchange, providing livelihoods for millions of people, but are also sources of positive emotions from the content of work. It should be noted that physical work under appropriate conditions, it can cause (in the words of A. Marshall) “satisfaction from the work itself.”
Thus, the essence of the labor process is determined by the following main aspects: psychophysiological; technologically m; socio-economic.
The psychophysiological aspect of work is determined by the expenditure of human energy and his emotional state; technological aspect - human actions aimed at converting resources into benefits; the socio-economic aspect is characterized by the usefulness of the results of labor and the motives of people that encourage them to produce material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. The main of these motives at present is obtaining income, the amount of which largely determines the socio-economic status of a person. Along with this, motives related to the content and working conditions are becoming increasingly important.
The most important parameter of all aspects of labor processes is the cost of working time, which determines the duration of work and the number of people involved in its implementation.
Based on the considered characteristics of the labor process, the following definition can be given.
The labor process is human activity to produce goods and resources. The main characteristics of labor processes are: the usefulness of the results, the expenditure of time and energy of workers, their income and the degree of satisfaction from the content of the functions performed.
1.2.2. Labor in the system of economic resources In economic literature, resources are also called factors of production. Marshall identified four such factors: land, labor, capital and organization of production. At the same time, he emphasized: “In a certain sense, there are only two factors of production - nature and man. Capital and organization are the result of the work of man, carried out with the help of nature and governed by his ability to foresee the future and his readiness to take care of the future... from any point of view, man is the center of the problem of production, as well as the problem of consumption, and also the consequent problem of the relations between the former two, having a double designation - “distribution” and “exchange”... Man acts as both the goal of production and its factor” [Marshall. T. 1.S. 209]. Modern economists, following mainly Marshall, usually call economic resources land, labor, capital and entrepreneurial ability.
In this case, the term “land” is used as a synonym for the term “natural resources”; the term “labor” refers to the cost of working time or the number of workers; the term “capital” characterizes buildings, structures, equipment used in the production of goods; the term "entrepreneurial ability" refers to the activities of rational use land, labor and capital.
The named terms cannot be considered adequate to the essence of the objects they denote. Thus, land is only part of natural resources. Labor, as shown above, is primarily the process of converting resources into benefits. Capital is a broad concept that characterizes, in general, any source of income: land, human creativity, machines, buildings, etc. The terms “capital resources”, “capital goods” used by some authors [Sanders. P. 20; Dictionary of Economics (Collins). P. 203] do not clarify the essence of the phenomenon. For example, a capital good is not only equipment, but also jewelry, securities, positions in government (for some individuals), etc. The last of the named factors of production - entrepreneurial abilities - is a type of human creative ability, i.e. , which in meaning should relate to the “labor” factor.
The only explanation for the existing classification of economic resources is its connection with sources of income: from land - rent; from labor (hired employees) - wages; from capital - interest (dividends); from entrepreneurial abilities - entrepreneurial profit. However, the indicated external correspondence of the structure of resources and income does not reflect the essence of economic processes.
Based on the above considerations, it is advisable to divide the set of economic resources into three types.
Nature (natural resources).
Labor potential.
Human-produced resources.
Nature as a type of resource is characterized by the area, location and fertility of the land, minerals, climate, forests, water reserves, hydropower, etc. Natural resources play not only a passive role as a source of raw materials and energy. Due to its special physical, chemical and biological properties, land is an active resource that provides the opportunity for a multiple increase in the value of products compared to the value of costs. An example is an ear growing from a single grain. In other words, land is one of the important sources of “net product,” i.e., what remains after reimbursement of costs incurred.
Labor potential in general characterizes the possibilities of participation of a person, employees of an enterprise, and the country's population in the production and exchange of goods. When determining these possibilities until the last quarter of the 20th century. the term "labor" was commonly used. In particular, K. Marx is called labor force(Arbeitskraft) object of purchase and sale in labor markets [Marx. P. 178]. Modern authors also use this term [Ehrenberg. P. 32]. Most often it denotes the potential of workers: their number, knowledge and skills.
Since the 70s XX century under the influence of the publications of Nobel laureate G. Becker, the term “human capital” began to be widely used. It characterizes the components of human potential that can become a source of income for household, enterprises and countries. Such components can be a person’s physical and creative abilities, his knowledge, skills, and activity. It is easy to notice that the term “human capital” is broader than the term “labor force,” although it does not contain anything fundamentally new, since the components of the labor force (knowledge and skills) are sources of income. In practice, the concept of “human capital” is used to assess the profitability of investments in education and advanced training. Many authors wrote about this before Becker, including Smith and Marshall.
In modern production, ethical aspects of human activity are becoming increasingly important, which are determined by such personality characteristics as morality, conscientiousness, attitude towards others, and the ability to work in a team. In relation to these qualities, the term “human capital” is not very suitable, since it is difficult to identify the corresponding income.
Concluding the review of terminology on labor resources, we note that in the literature of the USA and England, along with the term “human capital”, there is also the term “human resources” (Human Resource). This term is used in the field of knowledge, which in the USA and England is called management by human resourses(Human Resource Management), and in Germany, Austria and Switzerland - personnel management (Personalmanagement). Analyzing these terms, K. Scholz, one of the largest specialists in Germany on labor issues, provides a table of changes in terminology, from which it follows that in German-language literature the term “Personalrnanagement” replaced “Personalverwaltung” (“personnel management”) and “Personalwirtschaft” ( “personnel economics”), and in the English-language literature the term “Human Resource Management” replaced the term “Personnel Management”.
The considered examples show that scientific terminology cannot fail to take into account the traditions of the country and the norms of its language. There is reason to believe that in Russian a person’s capabilities in production activities are most adequately expressed by the term “labor potential”.
Thus, as can be seen from sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2, the term “labor” has two significantly different meanings: the labor process and labor potential.

1. Labor productivity.

2. Quality of work.

3. Labor organization.

4. Labor qualifications.

The concept of labor force, labor potential and labor capital.

Labor as a resource, thanks to which useful goods are produced. Characterized by such concepts as: labor, resources, slave. strength, human capital, labor potential.

With the transition to market relations, labor is an increasingly specific resource from the employer’s point of view, obliged to generate income for him. This requirement is better met by the concept of human capital. If we proceed from the classic definition of capital, this is everything that generates income, but human capital should be understood a person’s abilities, his knowledge and skills, which can become a source of income for the owner. Labor potential is characterized in terms of its participation in the production of useful goods.

The embodiment of labor as a resource is the slave. strength - mental and physical data of a person, his ability to work. Work force in economic theory - a person’s ability to work, the totality of physical and spiritual abilities that a person uses in his activities. In conditions market economy- is a commodity, but unlike other types of goods, labor has the following characteristics:
1. the product creates value, moreover, than it itself is worth (or, more precisely, what its employer values);
2. no production is possible without the use of this type of product;
3. the degree (efficiency) of using fixed and working capital depends on the workforce production assets, the economics of the economic structure as a whole.Under labor potential employee understand the totality of various qualities that determine the employee’s ability to work, a general indicator of the personal factor of production. Qualities are related to: the employee’s ability and inclination to work, his state of health, endurance, type nervous system, i.e. everything that reflects physical and psychological potential; with the volume of general and special knowledge, labor skills and abilities that determine the ability to work at a certain qualification; with the level of consciousness and responsibility, social maturity, ideological conviction, interests and needs. Economists talk about labor as a commodity, and sociologists more often use the concept of a worker’s labor potential. Human capital- a set of knowledge, skills and abilities used to meet the diverse needs of an individual and society as a whole. Initially, human capital was understood only as a set of investments in a person that increases his ability to work - education and professional skills. Subsequently, the concept of human capital expanded significantly. The latest calculations made by World Bank experts include consumer spending - family spending on food, clothing, housing, education, health care, culture, as well as government spending for these purposes.

Human capital in a broad sense, it is an intensive productive factor economic development, development of society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools of intellectual and managerial work, living environment and work activity, ensuring the effective and rational functioning of the human capital as a productive factor of development.

Labor productivity indicators.

To calculate P.T., indicators are used that characterize the effectiveness of the use of labor, i.e. its effectiveness. P.T. calculated using 2 indicators: production And labor intensity.

Output is defined as the ratio of the volume of production to the average number of employees or to the labor costs that ensured this volume of production. For bargaining enterprise production will be calculated by dividing the volume of technical equipment by the number of employees or (V=OTO/H, V=OTO/3t).

Labor intensity is calculated by dividing labor costs by the volume of products produced. (T=Zt/GTO). To characterize individual trade turnover, the volume of goods turnover per 1st seller or the labor costs of the 1st seller per volume of goods turnover is used. Calculate output and labor intensity:

1)technological( calculated through the volume of equipment and labor costs of the main employees ).

2) Development and labor intensity of maintenance ( calculated by comparing labor costs and the volume of work of service and support personnel or by calculating the volume of work as a percentage of the volume of main personnel ).

3) Technological V. and T. (Вп=Вт+Во,Тп=Тт+To)

4) V. and T. management (calculated based on the labor costs of the management apparatus).

5)B(T)p+B(T)o=B(T)tot.

In relation to time, you can calculate hourly, daily, monthly and average annual output. The annual average is calculated by dividing the annual volume of production (sales) by the annual volume of labor costs. ( Daytime V. = Hourly V. * length of work day. Menstrual V.=hourly V.* duration of working day* number of working days in a month.)

Analysis of the dynamics and composition of the enterprise personnel

The concept of the basic wage fund and the procedure for its calculation when various forms wages. Approximate structure of the wage fund.

Basic wages (tariff/accord fund, piece-rate earnings) - wages accrued to the employee at time-based tariff rates, at piece-rate rates, official salary or in accordance with current standards.

Structure: FOT=Of+Do+Po+N+MK+S+RK+Otp+Ps+Pp+VSK

Payroll Fund, Of-basic fund, Before/Po - additional/increased pay, N-bonuses, MK - skill and class (not mandatory), S - bonus for length of service (the Labor Code of the Russian Federation does not provide for it), RK - regional coefficients, vacation pay, Ps/Pp-bonuses for cutting costs/profit.

51. Planning funds for wages. The concept of wage fund and fund wages .

Payroll - total amount Money paid by employees of an enterprise at piece rates, tariff rates, salaries, as well as additional payments, allowances and bonuses for a certain period of time

FW is the amount of funds required to pay the labor of all employees of the enterprise during the defined period.

The wages and salaries are calculated on the basis of the enterprise’s production program, the planned number of workers by profession and qualifications, established rates for piecework work, the planned working time budget for 1 employee, current tariff rates and tariff schedules, applied forms and systems of remuneration, existing additional payments and allowances, bonus provisions.

At small/medium enterprises, the planned wages can be determined using the direct counting method. Initially, an individual salary wage is calculated for each workplace, taking into account the employer’s obligations to the employee in accordance with the concluded employment contract. The amount of the wages for workplaces forms the planned wages of the enterprise.

Enlarged method: planned number of employees*planned average salary.

Labor productivity should grow at a faster rate than the average salary.

The planned salary must be increased by the amount of the expected increase in inflation in accordance with the procedure adopted at the enterprise for indexing wages in connection with the growth retail prices for goods and services.

Planning of working hours and number of personnel.

To plan the number of personnel, calculations are necessary: ​​a) balance of working hours 1 average employee; b) number of employees by category; c) the average number of industrial production personnel by personnel category. => Then they set the working time budget for the planning period.

"From the achieved level."

Number of personnel in the planning period: Chpl = Chb (Chop.p /Ip.T), Chb - average number of employees in the base period, Cho.p - index of changes in production volume in the planned Ip.T - index of labor productivity growth.

Calculations should be supplemented with an analysis of the use of the working time fund of workers, and an action plan should be drawn up on its basis, aimed at best use slave of power, which is reflected in the labor productivity growth index.

The calculation is carried out taking into account the savings in the number of employees for all factors of labor productivity growth. The number of workers in the enterprise in the planning period: Chpl = Chb * Ip.T + ∆Nskh,

Chisk is the total change in the initial number of slaves.

These methods are applicable for plants with a stable volume.

More accurate for newly created enterprises: 1) by labor intensity of work, 2) by production standards, 3) by workplaces based on standards for servicing machines and units and monitoring technological processes.

Working time planning

Planning the number of employees is related to the indicator of the use of working time during the year (person/hour and person/day).

Working time balance is a system of indicators, the nature of the working time resources of workers, their distribution by type and cost and use. Calculated per 1 worker, compiled by enterprise, workshop, site. Stages of compilation: 1) calculation of the average actual number of working days; 2) establishment of the average duration of the working day; 3) determination of the effective fund of working time (hours) of one employee, taking into account the duration and accepted calendar mode of work.

Three funds of time: a) calendar - the number of calendar days in the planning period; b) nominal - the number of working days (maximum in the planning period); c) effective fund of working time of the average monthly worker (h) = the product of the number of working days by the actual length of the working day.

The number of working days in the planning period = the difference between the nominal fund and the number of absences. Planned absences - regular, additional, educational leaves; Absenteeism – illness, childbirth, fulfillment of government and general duties.

Vacations are planned in accordance with the law and the number of employees. Absenteeism - according to reporting data. Average length of work day - taking into account shortened business days.

Basic concepts and characteristics of work.

Labor is the purposeful activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values. Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for human life.

Labor presupposes a certain social form (man is a social being), certain relationships between people in the process of labor activity.

In the process of work, people enter into social and labor relations, interacting with each other.

main characteristics of work:

1. Labor productivity.

Productivity is determined by the number of goods or services produced per unit of time (shift, year, month, day, hour). It makes it possible to measure labor results using various parameters.

2. Quality of work.

3. Labor organization.

Organization is the process of any work that ensures labor discipline, coordination of workers, availability necessary materials and etc.

4. Labor qualifications.

Skill, experience, knowledge and professionalism make up the overall qualification.

Labor that does not require special skills can be called low-skilled. This includes carrying heavy objects, cleaning premises and similar activities. This is simple work.

Labor as a resource and labor as a process

Labor should be considered from two points of view - as a resource and as a process.

Labor as a process is any mental or physical activity undertaken partially or wholly with the aim of achieving any result. It has 3 main features: goal (production of useful goods), motivation, content of work (expedient transformation of resources and expenditure of time and energy)

Labor as a resource, thanks to which useful goods are produced. Characterized by such concepts as: labor, resources, slave. strength, human capital, labor potential.

Resources are from what and thanks to what useful goods are produced.

Resources are divided into 3 large subgroups: natural, resources obtained under the influence of labor from natural resources, labor through which natural resources are transformed.

Production is understood as the process of purposefully combining means of labor, objects of labor and labor itself.

The concept of labor resources is associated with legislation (labor code).

Work. resources are the entire working population of the country. The classification of the country's population as working is carried out through the concept of “maximum working age”, it is fixed in labor. code. (teenagers from 14 to 16, women 16-55, husband 16-60) this age changes periodically, depending on demographic and economic factors.

Includes labor. resources include working pensioners

Labor as an economic resource 1. Two approaches to determining the essence of wages. 2. Labor markets: 3. a) competitive labor market; 4. b) monopsony model. 5. 3. The influence of the trade union on the labor market.

There are two approaches to determining the essence of wages. According to the labor theory of value, the commodity is labor power, and wages represent payment for the cost of labor power. According to marginalism, the commodity is labor and, therefore, wages are remuneration for labor.

According to the labor theory of value, the commodity is not labor, but labor power. Labor power is the ability to work. It represents the totality of physical and intellectual abilities necessary to create products. Labor is the process of consuming labor power.

According to the labor theory of value, labor cannot be a commodity because: 1. There is no labor at the time of hiring, there is only the ability to work, i.e. labor power. 2. Labor has no value, it is a source (creator of value). Value is embodied social labor. Therefore, labor is a source of value, but itself has no value (in the very process of energy expenditure, labor does not freeze, is not materialized)

The cost of labor is determined by the cost of the means of subsistence necessary for the reproduction of the worker and his family. This value is less than the value created by the labor of the worker. Wages appear externally as remuneration for labor. In reality it represents the payment of the cost of labor power.

According to the theory of marginalism, wages represent the price of such a factor of production as labor. The price of labor is determined by the market based on the relationship between industry demand for labor and its supply. To determine the appropriate amount of purchased labor resource, it is necessary to compare the income created by each employee with the cost of labor (set by the market). It is necessary to hire workers until equality is achieved between the income created by the worker and the costs of paying him. This will be the ultimate worker. This employee has MRPL =MRCL. All others hired up to the limit worker will create MRPL>MRCL.

Real wages are expressed in the quantity of goods and services that can be purchased with a nominal wage. W (nominal) W (real) = P

Time wages are monetary payments for labor services depending on the amount of time worked. Piece wages are payments calculated depending on the quantity of products produced.

Advantages of time-based payment: – Convenient for performing complex and complex works; – Creates the prerequisites for quality work. Disadvantages of time-based payment: – Does not stimulate labor intensity; – Requires control over current activities, rather than their results.

Advantages of piecework payment: – Intensifies work; – Reduces supervision costs. Disadvantages of piecework payment: – Does not interest the employee in improving quality; – Not suitable for complex, long-term, complex work.

A perfectly competitive labor market presupposes: – The demand for a certain type of labor is presented by a large number of competing firms; – Numerous workers with the same qualifications and profession offer this type of work independently of each other; – Absence of any association on the part of both buyers of labor services (monopsony) and their sellers (monopoly); – Neither firms nor workers exercise control over wage rates. Wages are set by the market based on the relationship between industry demand and labor supply.

W SL W 1 W 2 0 DL LD L 0 LS Labor supply and demand for an industry under conditions of perfect competition

W B SL= MRC W 0 DL= MRP L 0 Labor supply and demand for an individual firm under perfect competition

Monopsony in the labor market means the presence of a single buyer of labor resources. The main features of a monopsony are: 1. The number of employees in a given company makes up the bulk of all those employed in a particular type of labor. 2. Complete (or almost complete) lack of mobility of workers; there is no opportunity to change employers when selling their labor. 3. Establishment by the monopsonist (sole employer) of control over the price of labor in the interests of maximizing profits.

Let us consider the process of formation of demand for resources using the example of such a key factor of production as labor.

We use the following categories for analysis:Marginal product of labor MP L

– the increase in output in physical terms obtained as a result of the use of one additional unit of labor. The marginal product of labor in monetary form ormarginal money product of labor MP MRP

= Р×MP L - increase in monetary income received as a result of the sale of products created by one additional unit of labor.Marginal labor costsM.R. MP WITH

In accordance with the law of diminishing returns, the value of the marginal product of labor, with a fixed volume of other factors of production used by the company, will decrease as the amount of labor used increases (Fig. 20).

Fig.20. Dynamics of the marginal product of labor.

To find out how a decrease in the marginal product of labor affects the company’s income, it is necessary to move from natural to cost indicators. This is achieved by constructing a graph of the dynamics of the marginal monetary product of labor, where the company’s revenue is recorded in monetary units on the y-axis, and the amount of labor used is recorded on the axis and abscissa (Fig. 21). The decrease in the marginal monetary product of labor (MRP L) is due to the decrease in the marginal product of labor (MP L).

The rate of decline in the profitability of the labor factor will be less in conditions of perfect competition (MRP curve 1). Than with imperfect competition (nodding MRP 2). Since prices are

finished products

a firm in conditions of perfect competition does not change with an increase in sales volume; the fall in MRP 1 is associated only with a reduction in the marginal product of labor (MP L).

Because of this, the slope of the graph in the second option looks steeper than in the first.

Fig.21. Marginal product of labor under conditions of perfect and imperfect competition.

So, we have found out how the marginal revenue of a firm changes with increasing use of labor resources. Now it is necessary to give a graphical representation of the change in the marginal cost of labor (Fig. 22). The horizontal axis on the graph still shows the volume of the purchased resource “labor” (L), and the vertical axis shows the price that will have to be paid for new portions of labor (P or W from the English wage). Rice. 22. Marginal costs of labor in conditions of perfect and imperfect competition The figure shows that with perfect competition, the firm's marginal labor costs do not change because its market share is too small. marginal money product of labor = Consequently, for each additional worker hired, the perfect competitor always has to pay the same price, equal to the established wage level.- This is one of the rules for maximizing profits.

The measure of the efficiency of resource use will be the return on them. In quantitative terms, it will be expressed as a fraction:

, where MRP i is the marginal monetary product of the corresponding resource, P i is its price.

The firm should improve the quality of purchased inputs until the associated additional revenue equals the marginal cost caused by the increased costs of purchasing more expensive inputs.

Price of production factor labor– wages are income in cash received by an employee for providing a certain labor service.

Wages are the main source of income for the working population.

, whereI P – price index.

Nominal wage – amount of money, received for performing some labor service.

Real wages are expressed in terms of the quantity of goods and services that can be purchased with a nominal wage.

Price index – inflation.

Table 1.

Average monthly salary in the Russian Federation (in rubles).

Indicators
Wage
Price index (%)
Nominal growth index salary
Real salary
Real salary growth index

Differences in wages depend on:

1) professional qualifications;

2) natural human abilities;

3) the level of his training;

4) sphere and industry of employment;

5) degree of labor mobility.

The manager's task is to ensure:

1) maximum motivation of personnel for effective and productive work;

2) attract labor resources to required quantity and with the necessary quality characteristics.

There are two main forms of wages: time-based and piece-rate.

is a monetary payment for the labor service of an employee, calculated depending on the amount of time worked (hour, day, week, month).

Piece wages- this is a monetary payment for the labor services of an employee, calculated depending on the amount of products they produce.

From the position of the employer (company), each of the main forms of wages has its own advantages and disadvantages. They are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the main forms of wages

Advantages	Flaws
Time wages
Creates potential prerequisites for quality work	Does not stimulate work intensification
Convenient when performing complex and complex work	Requires constant monitoring of current labor activity, which is much more difficult than monitoring its result
Piece wages
Intensifies work	Does not interest the employee in improving the quality of work and even often stimulates the production of defects
Reduces the costs of ongoing supervision of labor activity, allowing control only of its results	Unsuitable for complex, lengthy and complex work

In a modern market economy, there is a fairly wide variety of forms of monetary remuneration (especially in large companies). Forms of incentives (except for the salary itself) include:

1) bonuses (percentage of the company’s profit);

2) reimbursement of certain types of expenses (payment for mobile communications, Internet, etc.);

3) collective meals at the expense of the employer;

4) discounts on the purchase of company goods;

5) provision of credit cards and additional insurance;

6) assistance in paying for education and treatment costs;

7) loans for the purchase of housing;

8) company pension insurance.

Labor market under conditions of perfect competition

The main features of perfect competition in the labor market are:

1) presentation of demand for a certain type of labor is sufficient a large number firms competing with each other;

2) the absence of any form of association of labor sellers (no trade unions);

3) absence of barriers to entry and exit to the market;

4) homogeneity of the workforce, no need for rare or unique specialists.

R Let us first consider the dynamics of labor supply and demand for it in a perfectly competitive market in relation to a single firm (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Labor supply and demand for it for an individual firm under conditions of perfect competition

The graph shows that in in this case: firstly, labor supply is absolutely elastic (the straight line S L is parallel to the x-axis); secondly, the marginal labor cost (MRC) is constant and equal to the price of labor, i.e. wage rate (W 0).

At the level of an entire industry, the graphs of labor demand and supply take on a different form (Fig. 24). The intersection of multidirectional demand and supply curves is clearly visible at the equilibrium point, where the equilibrium wage rate (W0) and the equilibrium number of employed workers (L0) are formed.

It is this labor price that emerges at the industry level that acts in relation to the company as a market reality or a given, which it has to accept without complaint.

Rice. 24. Labor supply and demand for it for the industry under conditions of perfect competition

In conditions of perfect competition, the effect of the classical laws of market self-regulation is directly manifested. At the equilibrium point, there is equally no surplus or shortage of labor. This means that in the economy there is neither unemployment with its negative social consequences, nor a shortage of workers, which leads to a decrease in labor motivation and fewer demands from company management on personnel.

Labor market in conditions of imperfect competition.

And yet, the modern labor market, existing in a market economy, is more characterized by imperfect competition with elements of monopsony and monopoly.

The main signs of monopsony include:

1) concentration of the bulk of employed industries in one or several firms;

2) complete (almost complete) lack of mobility;

3) absence of trade unions or other forms of association.

Let us first illustrate the monopsony situation in the labor market (Table 3).

Table 3.

Marginal labor costs under imperfect competition

Monopsony in the labor market is expressed in the fact that for a monopsonist firm, the marginal costs associated with paying for labor resources grow faster than the wage rate (columns 4 and 2 in Table 3).

Consequently, according to the rule MRC = MRP, the company will hire L M people in this case. It is not profitable for a monopsonist to hire more people. Therefore, the demand for labor on the part of the monopsonist stops at this level and takes the form of a broken curved line (ABL M), highlighted on the graph by thickening. And since, in accordance with the supply curve S L, such a number of workers can be hired with wages at the rate W M, then this is exactly what the monopsonist will pay them.

In the formation of a competitive labor market, the state plays a large role in the person of trade unions - this is an association of hired workers created to protect their economic interests and improve working conditions. Depending on the composition of the workers being united, they can be of a narrow profile, sectoral, regional, national and international nature.

Thus, labor collective represents a valuable asset owned by the company. In this regard, the totality of people employed at the company with their knowledge and experience, the ability to coordinate actions, and the desire to work for the benefit of the company began to be considered as the human capital of the company.