Natural resources of Eastern European countries. Nature of Eastern Europe and its features’

It is enough to take even a cursory glance at the map of Europe to note the significant features of the natural conditions of Russia. First of all, this is a huge territory. If the total area of ​​Europe is 11.6 million square meters. km, then the area of ​​European Russia was 5.6 million square meters. km; and although Russia did not immediately occupy this entire territory, already from the end of the 15th century. it was the largest country in Europe.
For the national economy and political history of feudal countries great importance had proximity to the sea. Europe as a whole is distinguished by its highly dissected and rugged coastline. Islands and peninsulas account for a third (34%) of the total territory. However, the vast majority of islands and peninsulas are located in Western Europe. Continentality is the most characteristic feature of Eastern Europe, especially in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe, most of whose countries have access to the sea and a significant coastline. If more than half of the entire territory of Europe (51%) is located less than 250 km from metropolitan area 1, then for European Russia the corresponding figure is no more than 15%. In Eastern Europe there are surface points located 1 thousand km from the sea; in Western Europe, the greatest distance to the sea coast is 600 km. The seas to which the borders of feudal Russia extended were not very convenient for connections with the main trade routes. The cold Arctic Ocean creates serious difficulties for navigation. The Black Sea is an inland sea and is far from the busiest sea routes. In addition, a reliable access to
Russia received the Baltic Sea, and even the Black Sea, only in the century.
The main part of Eastern Europe is the largest on the mainland, the East European, or Russian, Plain, which occupies almost half of the entire territory of Europe. This is a huge, slightly hilly or slightly undulating space, the main parts of which do not exceed an altitude of 200 m above sea level; the absolute height of the hills located on it (the largest of them are Central Russian, Valdai, Pri-

Volga) no more than 370 m. Mountains are found here only on the outskirts (Carpathians, Caucasus, Ural). In Western Europe, the relief has a completely different character. Here often small space Mountains, plains, flat hills, and hilly areas alternate. In many European countries, the creation of sharp natural contrasts in relatively small areas islands and sea bays contribute. This diversity of surface shapes and natural conditions is especially evident in Greece and Italy.
Almost all of Europe lies in a temperate climate zone. In summer, the main part of European Russia is dominated by positive temperatures from 15° (Arkhangelsk) to 20° (Poltava). In Western Europe, summer temperatures are close to them, although in the north (in England, Scandinavia) they are somewhat lower, and in the extreme south they are slightly higher. But winter temperatures differ quite sharply in these areas. Distance from Atlantic Ocean, Gulf Stream current, warm Mediterranean Sea cause a strong cooling of the surface and atmosphere. Therefore, in winter it is much colder here. Here are data on the average January temperatures of some Western European countries
capitals: Athens - -j-9°, Madrid 1-4°, London [-3°, Paris -
+2°, Berlin 1°, Vienna 2°. Bucharest 4°2. In Russia
there were no such temperatures (with the exception of a narrow Black Sea strip); cities such as Lvov, Kyiv, Minsk, Poc-
tov-on-Don lie in the band from -2 4 to -8°; Leningrad,
Moscow, Voronezh, Volgograd - in the range from -8° to -12°; January is even colder in Arkhangelsk, Gorky, Perm, Kuibyshev3* Thus, January in Western Europe is warmer than in Eastern Europe, by an average of 10°. Difference in winter temperatures leads to another important difference. If coastal countries Western Europe do not have permanent snow cover at all (it forms at a temperature no higher than -3°), then in European Russia the snow lies for a long time - from three to four (Kyiv, Volgograd) to six to seven months (Leningrad, Arkhangelsk, Sverdlovsk). Only in the eastern part of Central Europe does snow persist for one to two months. Spring and autumn in Western European countries are warm and more extended in time, which also matters for Agriculture.
The bulk of precipitation in Eastern Europe falls in the summer. They are distributed fairly evenly over the surface of the Russian Plain. Most of it has 500-600 mm of precipitation per year. In the extreme south and southeast, the soil receives only 300-400 mm, and in the Caspian lowland even less than 200 mm. In Western Europe, precipitation falls significantly more - on average from 500 to 1 thousand mm per year; They are distributed throughout its territory more diversely. At a great distance from the ocean in the warm season in the south-eastern part of Eastern Europe, it is often possible to install

There are long periods of rainlessness and drought. In some cases, they also cover the middle part of Eastern Europe and, less frequently, Central Europe.
There are a lot of large rivers in Eastern Europe. Here is the greatest river in Europe, the Volga, whose length is 3,690 km, and the basin makes up 12% of the entire area of ​​the continent, and eight more large rivers, each with a length of more than 1 thousand km. There are only five such rivers in Western Europe. No country in Europe has such powerful and branched river systems covering vast areas. Most of the large rivers of Eastern Europe flow south - into the Black and Caspian Seas. Hydrologists characterize Eastern European rivers as rivers of the “Russian” type. They have a mixed feeding pattern (rain and snow), but with a predominance of snow. In the spring, as a result of melting snow, the water flow in them increases sharply, and floods occur. At the end of summer, the rivers become shallow (especially at the end of August - September), and this level remains the same throughout the winter. According to data from the 19th century, in the Moscow River in spring, water flow was more than 100 times higher than during low water; The flood on the Volga reached such proportions that in Astrakhan it lasted about two months4. Since most Russian rivers flow along the plain, they usually have a calm flow and a large number of convolutions The rivers of European Russia, as a rule, are covered with ice for a long time (from two to seven months a year).
The rivers of Western Europe are characterized by significantly less, sometimes close to zero specific gravity snow nutrition. Therefore, they also lack spring floods. The rivers of Western Europe (with the exception of the rivers of the Far North) do not freeze in normal years. Many rivers in Western Europe, especially those starting in the mountains, have a fairly fast flow; Some rivers are calm in nature.
In terms of soil cover, the territory of European Russia can be divided into two parts. The border between them runs approximately along the line Kazan - Gorky - Kaluga - Kyiv - Lutsk. The northern part of these parts is characterized by soils with reduced biological productivity. The northernmost regions of Eastern Europe (roughly speaking, north of the 60th parallel) have very poor soils - tundra, swamp, podzolic. To the south there are areas occupied by soddy-podzolic soils, which have more nutrient reserves. Those of them that have a clay or loamy composition can produce good yields. However, in this territory there are more sandy and sandy loam soils in mechanical composition than clayey and loamy soils. Finally, significant areas in this part are occupied by swamps.
The southern part has much more fertile soils- gray forest and chernozems of various types. This is the territory of the modern Black Earth Center* of Moldova, Ukraine, which
They serve as the breadbasket of the country. The best varieties Chernozems here are distinguished by high fertility. There is also little sand here. True, the southeast of this region (the Caspian lowland and the adjacent strip of steppes) has a lot of sandy and saline soils and often suffers from a lack of moisture.
Western Europe can also be divided into two parts, differing in the nature of their soils. Infertile soils occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula, the islands of Great Britain (with the exception of their southern parts) and Ireland; on the mainland, the border between poor and rich soils can be extended from Lutsk through Lublin, Wroclaw, Magdeburg and Rotterdam. Sometimes areas of soils more favorable for agriculture go beyond this line (in the north of Germany, the GDR and Poland, in the east of Denmark); but to the south of this border, soddy-podzolic soils lie in separate massifs in France, Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia. South and west of this line, the soils are, as a rule, fertile - gray or brown forest soils, chernozems, brown soils, red soils, yellow soils, etc. (Ho in this part there are no such rich chernozems as in Eastern Europe, and a significant part of the territory is occupied by soils of mountainous regions, which have a thinner nutrient layer.) The ratio between the fertile and infertile parts in foreign Europe is exactly the opposite of the same ratio in European Russia: if in In the first case, fertile areas occupy slightly more than half of the territory; in the second case, they account for a smaller part of the area.
h Russia's mineral resources were very large. Here there was much of what was necessary for the development of industry of the feudal period. The main raw materials for primitive metallurgy were swamp, lake and turf ores. They were distributed almost throughout the entire territory of Europe, and Rus' in this regard was, therefore, in completely equal conditions. There were huge deposits of high-quality maschetite ore in the Urals; Western Europe also had rich reserves of iron ore (in England, Germany, Sweden). Russia had large deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, but they were located in the eastern regions (in the Urals, Altai, Transbaikalia). In Western European countries, copper was mined in Germany, Spain, Hungary, and Serbia; tin - in England, Saxony, Czech Republic, Serbia; lead - in Hungary. Reserves of precious metals were also developed in Western European countries: Germany had a lot of silver; gold and silver were mined in smaller quantities in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Serbia5. Russia was also not poor in these metals, and the reserves of gold and platinum were much richer than the ores of European countries, but they were again concentrated mainly in the Urals and Siberia. Russia had vast tracts of forest of excellent quality, and in this regard it was superior to other European countries. The country was well provided for
hydraulic energy and raw materials for primitive chemical industry, and its natural resources here were not inferior to those of Russia’s western neighbors.
These are the main features of the natural conditions of European Russia in comparison with foreign European countries.

The Central-Eastern Europe (CEE) region covers 15 post-socialist countries: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic (the Czech Republic includes the territory of the historical regions of the Czech Republic, Moravia and a small part of Silesia), Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Federation Serbia and Montenegro (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Albania. The area of ​​the region, representing a single territorial massif, is over 1.3 million sq. km. with a population of 130 million people. (1998). Of its constituent countries, the group of larger European states includes only Poland and Romania; the rest of the countries are relatively small sizes(territory from 20 to 110 thousand sq. km. with a population of 2 to 10 million people).

This region of Europe has gone through a difficult path of political and socio-economic development in the context of a dramatic struggle for the peoples inhabiting it by the largest European powers for spheres of influence on the continent. This struggle was waged with particular force in the 19th-20th centuries. between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, Turkey, as well as France and Great Britain. During this struggle and the intensified national liberation movements of the local population, former states were formed and destroyed. After the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, Poland reappeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were formed, and the territory of Romania more than doubled.

Subsequent changes to political map CEE was the result of the victory over Nazi Germany and Italy during the Second World War. The most important of them: the return to Poland of its western and northern lands with wide access to the Baltic Sea, Yugoslavia - the Julian Region and the Istrian Peninsula, inhabited mainly by Slovenes and Croats.

During the transition of CEE countries from a centrally planned economy to a market economy (late 80s - early 90s), political, socio-economic and national-ethnic contradictions sharply worsened. As a result, Czechoslovakia split along ethnic lines into two states - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic, and Yugoslavia - into five states: Union Republic Yugoslavia, the republics of Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The CEE countries are located between the countries of Western Europe and the republics that were (until 1992) part of the USSR. A number of related common features their political and socio-economic development at the stage of transition to a market economy. They are in the process of deep structural economic restructuring, fundamental changes in the nature and direction of external economic ties.

The CEE states are striving to expand their participation in pan-European economic integration, primarily in the fields of transport, energy, ecology, and the use of recreational resources. The region has access to the Baltic, Black and Adriatic seas, and the navigable Danube flows through it for a long distance; the region's territory can be widely used for the transit of goods and passengers between Western Europe, the CIS countries and Asia. For example, with the completion in 1993 of the Bamberg (on the Main River) - Regensburg (on the Danube River) canal, the possibility of end-to-end trans-European water transport between the North and Black Seas opens up (from Rotterdam at the mouth of the Rhine to Sulina at the mouth of the Danube, a waterway of 3,400 km.) . This is an important link in the development of a unified European network of inland waterways. Another example of the expanding use of the geographical location of the CEE countries is transit shipments through pipelines of natural gas and oil from Russia and other Caspian states to the countries of Western and Southern Europe. The CEE countries signed the European Energy Charter in 1994, which laid down the economic mechanisms for the global energy space throughout Europe.

When assessing natural resources, features of settlement and regional differences in economic activities in modern territory CEE countries need to imagine the most important structural and morphological features of its relief. The region covers: part of the European Plain in the north (Baltic States, Poland), Hercynian midlands and hilly uplands (Czech Republic), part of Alpine-Carpathian Europe with folded mountains up to 2.5 - 3 thousand m high and low accumulative plains - Middle and Lower -Danube (Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, northern Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria), the southern European Dinaric and Rhodope-Macedonian massifs up to 2 - 2.5 thousand meters high with intermountain basins and foothill plains (most of Croatia and Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and southern Bulgaria).

Features of geological and tectonic structures determined by the composition and nature of the geographical distribution of mineral resources in countries. The greatest economic importance are large (on a European scale) deposits: hard coal (Upper Silesian basin in southern Poland and the adjacent Ostrava-Karvinsky basin in the north-east of the Czech Republic), brown coal (Serbia, Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas ( Romania, Albania), oil shale (Estonia), rock salt (Poland, Romania), phosphorites (Estonia), natural sulfur (Poland), lead-zinc ores (Poland, Serbia), bauxite (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary) , chromite and nickel (Albania); In a number of countries there are deposits of uranium ores of industrial importance.

In general, CEE countries are insufficiently provided with primary energy resources. Up to 9/10 of the region's coal reserves (about 70 billion tons) are in Poland alone. CEE contains over 1/3 of the pan-European reserves of brown coal; they are more dispersed across the countries of the region, but still more than half lie in Serbia and Poland. No country (except Albania) has sufficient oil and natural gas reserves. Even Romania, which is better supplied with them, is forced to partially cover its needs for them through imports. Of the total hydro potential of CEE of 182 billion kWh, about half is in the republics of the former Yugoslavia (primarily Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina) and more than 20% in Romania. The region is rich in healing mineral springs, some of which are effectively used (especially in the Czech Republic).

CEE countries vary greatly in the size, composition and quality of forest resources. In the south of the region in mountainous areas Balkan Peninsula, as well as in the Carpathians, increased forest cover with a predominance of coniferous species and beech, while in predominantly flat and heavily cultivated Poland and Hungary the forest supply is much less. In Poland and the Czech Republic, a significant part of productive forests is represented by artificial plantations, primarily pine trees.

However, one of the main assets of CEE is its soil and climatic resources. There are large areas of naturally fertile soils, mostly of the chernozem type. These are primarily the Lower and Middle Danube plains, as well as the Upper Thracian lowland. Due to the extensiveness of agriculture before the Second World War, about 10 - 15 quintals were collected here. with hectares Cereal crops. IN

In the 80s, the yield had already reached 35 - 45 c. per hectare, but was still lower than the yields in some Western European countries with lands less rich in humus.

Based on soil and climatic conditions and other natural resources, CEE countries can be conditionally divided into two groups: northern (Baltic countries, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia) and southern (rest of the countries). These differences, consisting of more high temperatures during the growing season and more fertile soils in the southern group of countries, create objective basis specialization and complementarity of both groups of countries in agricultural production. While most of the territory of the northern group of countries is in a zone of sufficient moisture, in the southern group, arid conditions often arise during the growing season, causing the need for artificial irrigation (In the Lower Danube and Middle Danube lowlands, in the second half of the 20th century, one of the most irrigated areas in Europe arose agriculture). At the same time climatic conditions southern group countries, combined with healing mineral springs and wide access to warm seas, create important prerequisites to organize recreation for residents not only of these countries, but also the northern part of the region, as well as tourists from other, primarily European, countries.

Europe is the second (after Australia) smallest part of the world by area. However, its strategic location in relation to Asia and Africa, as well as its navigable rivers and fertile soils, made Europe a dominant economic, social and cultural power over a long period of history.

Water resources

Water is an essential component of life on our planet. Ecosystems, societies and economies need sufficient water to thrive. However, the demand for water resources exceeds its availability in many parts of the world, and some regions of Europe are no exception. In addition, a large number of water bodies are in poor ecological condition.

Oceans and seas

Europe is washed by two oceans: in the north - the Arctic Ocean and in the west - the Atlantic Ocean; as well as the following seas: North, Baltic, Mediterranean, Black, Azov, Barents, Norwegian, White, Kara and Caspian.

Rivers

A large number of rivers flow through Europe. Some of them form borders between different countries, while others serve as a valuable source of water for agriculture and fish farming. Most rivers in Europe are rich in dissolved minerals and valuable organic compounds. Many of them also have interesting physical properties and create waterfalls and canyons. European rivers are, in fact, an extremely important part of the continent. The longest rivers in Europe are: Volga (3,692 km), Danube (2,860 km), Ural (2,428 km), Dnieper (2,290 km), Don (1,950 km).

Lakes

Lakes are bodies of water with stagnant fresh water, although they can also be brackish, i.e. slightly salty. They are characterized by physical features such as area, depth, volume, length, etc.

In Europe there are more than 500,000 natural lakes larger than 0.01 km² (1 ha). Between 80% and 90% of them are small, with an area of ​​0.01 to 0.1 km², while about 16,000 are larger than 1 km². Three quarters of the lakes are located in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Karelo-Kola part of Russia.

24 lakes in Europe have an area of ​​more than 400 km². Europe's largest freshwater lake, Lake Ladoga, covers an area of ​​17,670 km² and is located in the northwestern part of Russia, next to the second largest Lake Onega, with an area of ​​9,700 km². Both lakes are significantly larger than other European lakes and reservoirs. However, they are only 18th and 22nd in the world in terms of area. The third largest is the Kuibyshev reservoir, with an area of ​​6,450 km², located on the Volga River. Another 19 natural lakes with a size of more than 400 km² are located in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, northwestern Russia, and also in Central Europe.

Demand and supply of water resources

Although fresh water is generally abundant in Europe, water shortages and droughts continue to affect some water basins at certain times of the year. The Mediterranean region and most densely populated river basins in different parts of Europe are hotspots for water scarcity.

IN winter period, about 30 million people in Europe live in conditions of water scarcity, while this figure is summer time is 70 million people. This corresponds to 4% and 9% of the total population of this part of the world.

About 20% of the total population of the Mediterranean region lives in conditions of constant water scarcity. More than half (53%) of the inhabitants of Mediterranean countries experience water shortages during the summer.

46% of rivers and 35% of groundwater resources provide more than 80% of the total water demand in Europe.

Agriculture requires 36% of total water consumption. In summer, this figure increases to approximately 60%. Agriculture in the Mediterranean region accounts for almost 75% of the total water consumption of the European agricultural sector.

Public water supply accounts for 32% of total water use. This puts pressure on renewables water resources, especially in areas with high population density. The small resort islands of Europe are in severe water shortage conditions caused by the influx of tourists, which is 10-15 times greater than the number of local residents.

Forest resources

In Europe, about 33% of total area land (215 million hectares) is covered with forests, and there is a positive trend in increasing forest areas. Other forest lands cover an additional 36 million hectares. About 113 million hectares are covered by coniferous forests, 90 million hectares by broad-leaved forests and 48 million hectares by mixed forests.

The use of forest resources is an important industry in Europe. The timber industry generates revenues of more than $600 billion annually. Forestry and wood processing industries provide jobs for around 3.7 million people and account for 9% of Europe's gross domestic product (GDP).

The most important forest industries in Europe are: wood processing, pulp and paper, building materials and furniture products. This part of the world is known for exporting high quality goods such as paper, furniture and wood panels.

In Europe, non-timber forest resources are also in demand, which include the collection of mushrooms and truffles, honey, fruits and berries, as well as the cultivation and collection of medicinal plants. Europe accounts for 80% of the total production of phellem (cork fabric) worldwide.

Map of the percentage of forests to area of ​​European countries

The largest area of ​​forest resources is occupied by Finland (73%) and Sweden (68%). Forest cover in Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Greece, Spain and the European part Russian Federation exceeds 49%.

The least amount of forest is found on: the Isle of Man (6%), the island of Jersey (5%), the island of Guernsey (3%) and the island nation of Malta (1%). Gibraltar, Monaco, San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen have less than 1% forest cover.

Land resources

Land is the basis for most biological resources and human activities. Agriculture, forestry, industry, transportation, housing and other forms of land use serve as important economic resource. Land is also an integral part of ecosystems and a necessary condition for the existence of living organisms.

The earth can be divided into two interrelated concepts:

• vegetation cover, which refers to the biophysical cover of the earth (eg, crops, grasses, broadleaf forests, and other biological resources);

• land use indicates the socio-economic use of land (e.g. agriculture, forestry, recreation, etc.).

Forests and other wooded areas occupy 37.1% of Europe's total area, arable land makes up almost a quarter of the land resource (24.8%), grassland 20.7%, and shrubland 6.6%, with water areas and wetlands lands occupy 4.8%.

Agricultural land use is the most common land use in European countries and accounts for 43.5% of the total land area. Areas used for forestry occupy 32.4% of the territory, while 5.7% of the land is intended for residential and recreational purposes. Industry and transportation make up 3.4%, and the remaining lands are used for hunting and fishing, or are protected, or have no apparent use.

Europe has many different vegetation and land uses that reflect historical changes. IN last years Some of the most important changes in land use included the decline in agricultural land use and the gradual increase in forested areas (driven by the need to meet global environmental obligations due to climate change). Construction of roads, highways, railways, intensive agriculture and urbanization have led to fragmentation of land resources. This process negatively affects the flora and fauna of Europe.

Mineral resources

Europe has significant reserves of metal resources. Russia is the main supplier of oil, which gives it strategic advantage in international negotiations. Outside of Russia, oil is relatively scarce in Europe (with the exception of fields off the coast of Scotland and Norway). Peat and potash are also important to the European economy. Zinc and copper are the main elements that are used in almost all European countries. Iceland is a leader in alternative sources energy. Since the Baltic countries are poor in mineral resources, they depend on other states, for example, Sweden.

Europe Mineral Resources Map

Mineral resources of the Nordic countries

Northern Europe's mineral resources mainly include metals such as bauxite (from which aluminum is extracted), copper and iron ore. Some northern European countries (such as Denmark) have oil and natural gas reserves. Scandinavia is relatively rich in oil and natural gas.

Mineral resources of Southern European countries

Italy has significant reserves of coal, mercury and zinc. Croatia has a limited amount of oil and bauxite. Bosnia and Herzegovina has reserves of bauxite, coal and iron ore. Greece has some iron ore, bauxite, petroleum, lead and zinc.

Mineral resources of Western European countries

Spain and France share reserves of coal, zinc, as well as copper and lead. France also has bauxite and uranium. Germany has large reserves of coal, as well as nickel and lignite (or brown coal, similar to peat). The UK has some offshore oil and natural gas deposits, as well as significant coal reserves and small gold reserves. Iceland is a leader in hydropower and geothermal energy production. Portugal has some gold, zinc, copper and uranium. Ireland has significant reserves of natural gas and peat.

Mineral resources of Eastern European countries

Ukraine and Russia are rich in natural gas and oil. The Baltic countries are poorer by mineral resources, although Latvia has begun to exploit its hydroelectric potential. Poland is endowed with coal, natural gas, iron ore and copper, and also has limited reserves of silver. Serbia has some oil and natural gas, copper and zinc, and limited reserves of gold and silver. Bulgaria is rich in alumina and copper. Kosovo is probably the most blessed country of all the Eastern European states, as it is home to huge reserves of gold, silver, natural gas, bauxite, nickel and zinc. And finally, Russia has an abundance of natural resources: it has large percentage world reserves of oil and natural gas, as well as vast reserves of almost all the most important minerals.

Biological resources

TO biological resources Europe includes all living organisms living in this part of the world, including: animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms that are used by people for personal needs, as well as wild representatives of flora and fauna that have a direct or indirect impact on the ecosystem.

Livestock

Spain, Germany, France, the UK and Italy are the largest livestock-producing countries in Europe. In 2016, greatest number pigs were recorded in Spain and Germany (28.4 and 27.7 million heads, respectively), in France 19.4 million heads of large cattle, and in the UK there are 23.1 million head of sheep. Goats and poultry (chickens, ducks, geese, etc.) are also raised in Europe. Livestock farming provides Europeans with food, including milk, meat, eggs, etc. Some animals are used for work and riding.

Fish farming

Fish farming is an important branch of livestock farming. Europe represents approximately 5% of the world's fisheries and aquaculture production. Wild fish are caught primarily in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Main fish species include: Atlantic herring, sprat, blue whiting and Atlantic mackerel. The leading fishing countries are: Spain, Denmark, Great Britain and France. These countries account for about half of all fish catches in Europe.

Crop production

Cereal crops grown in Europe include wheat, spelled, barley, corn, rye, etc. This part of the world is the leading producer of sugar beets in the world (about 50% of the world's reserves). Oilseed crops grown here include soybeans, sunflowers and rapeseed.

The main vegetables grown in Europe are: tomato, onion, carrot. The most important fruits include: apples, oranges and peaches. About 65% of the world's viticulture and winemaking is concentrated in Europe, with the leading producing countries, accounting for 79.3% of total production, being Italy, France and Spain.

Europe is also the world's largest producer olive oil, which is almost 3/4 of world production. The Mediterranean region produces 95% of the world's olive trees. The main producing countries of this oil are Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal.

Flora

Probably 80 to 90% of Europe was covered in forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean to the North Arctic Ocean. Although more than half of the forests have disappeared due to deforestation, more than 1/4 of the territory is still occupied by forests. Behind Lately, deforestation slowed and many trees were planted.

Most important species trees in Central and Western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce-pine-birch forest; further north, within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to the tundra. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees were planted and adapted very well to the characteristic arid climate; Mediterranean cypress trees are also widespread in Southern Europe.

Fauna

The last Ice Age and the presence of humans influenced the distribution of European fauna. In many parts of Europe, most large animals and carnivores best views were exterminated. Today, large animals such as wolves and bears are endangered. The reason for this was deforestation, poaching and fragmentation of natural habitats.

The following animal species live in Europe: the European forest cat, the fox (especially the red fox), jackals and different kinds martens, hedgehogs. Here you can find snakes (such as vipers and snakes), amphibians and various birds (for example, owls, hawks and other birds of prey).

The extinction of the pygmy hippopotamus and pygmy elephant was associated with the earliest arrival of humans on the Mediterranean islands.

Marine organisms are also an important part of European flora and fauna. Marine flora mainly includes phytoplankton. Important marine animals that live in European seas are: molluscs, echinoderms, various crustaceans, squid, octopus, fish, dolphins, and whales.

Europe's biodiversity is protected by the Berne Convention on the Conservation of Wild Fauna and Flora, and natural environments a habitat".

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The region is especially rich in landscapes of temperate and subtropical zones. The relief alternates between lowlands, rolling plains and mountains, although flat areas dominate. Mountain ranges are mainly located along the edge of the region: the Ural, Caucasian, Crimean, Carpathian, Balkan mountains. Most of the region's area is covered by plains, among which the largest is the East European Plain - one of the largest plains on the globe (with an area of ​​about 5 million km2). Most low-lying areas are confined to coastal areas and floodplains.

The region ranks among the first in Europe in terms of the richness and diversity of its mineral resource base. They are fully satisfied with their own needs for coal (Upper Silesian basin in Poland, Donbass and Lvov-Volyn in Ukraine, Pechora in Russia). Oil and gas are rich in the subsoil of Russia (Volga-Ural basin); there are minor reserves in Ukraine, Romania and Hungary. Peat occurs in Belarus, Poland, and Lithuania, and oil shale occurs in Estonia and Russia. Ore minerals are represented by iron ores (Krivoy Rog basin in Ukraine, KGB in Russia), manganese (Nikopol basin in Ukraine), copper ores (Poland and Russia), bauxite (Hungary), nickel (Russia). Among the non-metallic mineral resources in the region there are powerful reserves of rock salt (Ukraine and Poland), sulfur (Ukraine), amber (Latvia and Russia), and phosphorites (Russia and Estonia).

The climate in most of the territory is moderate continental, with average temperatures in January up to -5 ° C, and in July up to +23 ° C. Precipitation amounts to about 500-650 mm. In the north of the European part of Russia, the climate is subarctic and arctic with harsh weather. The southwest is dominated by a subtropical Mediterranean climate.

It is characterized by a dense river network, represented by the basins of the Volga, Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, Oder, Vistula, etc., their tributaries are usually deep and have a calm flow. There are many lakes here: the Karelian Lake District, Ladoga, Onega, Chudskoye, Balaton, Shatsk Lakes and others. In Belarus, in the north of Ukraine, in Poland there are huge areas of marshy areas, among them the most famous are the Pripyat swamps. Healing springs mineral waters have long been popular in the Czech Republic (Karlovy Vary), Ukraine (Mirgorod, Prykarpattya and Transcarpathia), Russia (mineral springs of the Caucasus), Bulgaria and Hungary.

Forests, covering more than 30% of the territory, are the national wealth of the countries of Eastern Europe. Rich forests of northern Russia, Carpathians, Caucasus. Forest resources are the basis for the development of the woodworking and furniture industries.

Outstanding recreational resources include the sea coast, mineral springs, and karst caves. The region is rich in sea, river and lake, and mountain resorts. In Eastern European countries, a large number of national parks have recently been created, including of which the famous Belovezhskaya Pushcha.

Eastern Europe as a historical and geographical region includes: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, countries formed as a result of the collapse of the former Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia), Albania, Latvia, Lithuania , Estonia.

There is also an opinion that the countries of this region should be classified as either Central or Central Europe, since it would be more correct to call Eastern Europe Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and the European part of Russia.

But the name “Eastern Europe” stuck with the countries of this region and is recognized throughout the world.

Geographical position. Natural resources

The countries of Eastern Europe represent a single natural territorial massif stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. At the heart of the region and the adjacent countries is an ancient Precambrian platform, overlain by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as an area of ​​alpine folding.

An important feature of all countries in the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.

The countries of Eastern Europe differ from each other in geographical location, configuration, size of territory, and wealth of natural resources.

Natural resource reserves include: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas(Romania), iron ores (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania).

In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a striking example of the “incompleteness” of a set of minerals. Thus, Poland has large reserves of coal, copper ores, sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, or iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals.

Population

The region's population is about 130 million people, but the demographic situation, which is difficult throughout Europe, is the most alarming in Eastern Europe. Despite the active demographic policy pursued over several decades, natural population growth is very small (less than 2%) and continues to decline. Bulgaria and Hungary are even experiencing natural population decline. The main reason This is due to the disruption of the age-sex structure of the population as a result of the Second World War.

In some countries, natural increase is higher than the regional average (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.

The largest country in the region is Poland (about 40 million people), the smallest is Estonia (about 1.5 million people).

The population of Eastern Europe has a complex ethnic composition, but one can note the predominance of Slavic peoples. Of the other peoples, the most numerous are Romanians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Lithuanians. Poland, Hungary, and Albania have the most homogeneous national composition. Lithuania.

Eastern Europe has always been an arena of national and ethnic conflicts. After the collapse of the socialist system, the situation became more complicated, especially on the territory of the most multinational country in the region - Yugoslavia, where the conflict escalated into an interethnic war.

The most urbanized country in Eastern Europe is the Czech Republic (3/4 of the population lives in cities). There are quite a lot of urban agglomerations in the region, the largest of which are Upper Silesia (in Poland) and Budapest (in Hungary). But most countries are characterized by historically formed small towns and villages, and the Baltic countries are characterized by hamlets.

Farm

The countries of Eastern Europe today are not characterized by a pronounced socio-economic unity. But in general we can say that _. in the 2nd half of the 20th century. Great changes have occurred in the economies of Eastern European countries. Firstly, industries developed at a faster pace - by the 80s, Europe had become one of the most industrial regions of the world, and secondly, previously very backward regions also began to develop industrially (For example, Slovakia in the former Czechoslovakia, Moldova in Romania, northeast Poland).

Such results became possible thanks to the implementation of regional policy.

Energy

Due to the shortage of oil reserves, this region is focused on coal, most of the electricity is generated by thermal power plants (more than 60%), but hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants also play an important role. One of the largest nuclear power plants was built in the region - Kozloduy in Bulgaria.

Metallurgy

In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, with non-ferrous metallurgy relying mainly on its own raw materials, and ferrous metallurgy on imported ones.

Mechanical engineering The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool manufacturing, production household appliances And computer technology

); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; In addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia.

The chemical industry of the region lags far behind that of Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But we can still note the pharmaceuticals of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic.

Agriculture of the region

Mainly meets the food needs of the population. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes occurred in the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe: the agro-industrial complex emerged, and specialization of agricultural production took place. It was most clearly manifested in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.

The economic structure of the region is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Baltic countries, the share of livestock farming exceeds the share of crop farming; in the rest, the ratio is still the opposite.

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, in the central part of the subregion vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated, and the “southern” countries specialize on subtropical crops.

The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, and fruits.

The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria).

Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.

Vegetables, fruits, and grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in terms of product range. For example, Hungary is famous winter varieties

apples, grapes, onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.

Animal husbandry.

The northern and central countries of the region specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, while the southern countries specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool animal husbandry.

Transport

The countries of Eastern Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGP, resources, and level of development.

1. Northern group: Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. These countries are still characterized by a low degree of integration, but there are common tasks in the development of the maritime economy.

2. Central group: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary. The economy of the first two countries is of a clearly industrial nature. The Czech Republic ranks first in the region in terms of industrial output per capita.

3. Southern group: Romania, Bulgaria, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Albania. In the past, these were the most backward countries, and now, despite major changes in their economy, the countries of this group lag behind the countries of the 1st and 2nd groups in most indicators.