Meteorological station: types, instruments and devices, observations made. First meteorological instruments Instruments for meteorological measurements

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The era of great discoveries and inventions, which marked the beginning of a new period in human history, also revolutionized the natural sciences. The discovery of new countries brought information about a huge number of physical facts previously unknown, starting with experimental evidence of the spherical shape of the earth and the concept of the diversity of its climates. Navigation of this era required great development of astronomy, optics, knowledge of the rules of navigation, the properties of the magnetic needle, knowledge of the winds and sea currents of all oceans. While the development of merchant capitalism served as an impetus for increasingly distant travel and the search for new sea routes, the transition from old craft production to manufactory required the creation of new technology.

This period was called the Age of the Renaissance, but its achievements went far beyond the revival of ancient sciences - it was marked by a real scientific revolution. In the 17th century the foundations of a new mathematical method for analyzing infinitesimals were laid, many basic laws of mechanics and physics were discovered, a spotting scope, microscope, barometer, thermometer and other physical instruments were invented. Using them, experimental science quickly began to develop. Heralding its emergence, Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most brilliant representatives new era, said that “...it seems to me that those sciences are empty and full of errors that do not end in obvious experience, i.e. unless their beginning or middle or end passes through one of the five senses.” God's intervention in natural phenomena was considered impossible and non-existent. Science came out from under the yoke of the church. Along with the church authorities, Aristotle was also consigned to oblivion - from the middle of the 17th century. His creations were almost never republished and were not mentioned by naturalists.

In the 17th century science began to be created anew. That new science

had to win the right to exist, aroused great enthusiasm among scientists of that time. So, Leonardo da Vinci was not only a great artist, mechanic and engineer, he was a designer of a number of physical devices, one of the founders of atmospheric optics, and what he wrote about the visibility range of colored objects remains of interest to this day. Pascal, a philosopher who proclaimed that human thought will allow him to conquer the powerful forces of nature, an outstanding mathematician and creator of hydrostatics, was the first to experimentally prove the decrease in atmospheric pressure with altitude. Descartes and Locke, Newton and Leibniz - the great minds of the 17th century, famous for their philosophical and mathematical research - made major contributions to physics, in particular to atmospheric science, which was then almost inseparable from physics.

This revolution was led by Italy, where Galileo and his students Torricelli, Maggiotti and Nardi, Viviani and Castelli lived and worked. Other countries also made major contributions to meteorology at the time; it is enough to recall F. Bacon, E. Mariotte, R. Boyle, Chr. Huygens, O. Guericke - a number of outstanding thinkers.

Herald of the new scientific method was F. Bacon (1561 - 1626) - “the founder of English materialism and all experimental science of our time,” according to Karl Marx. Bacon rejected the speculations of scholastic “science”, which, as he rightly said, neglected natural science, was alien to experience, was shackled by superstition and bowed to the authorities and dogmas of faith, which tirelessly spoke of the unknowability of God and his creations. Bacon proclaimed that science would be led forward by the union of experience and reason, purifying experience and extracting from it the laws of nature interpreted by the latter.

In Bacon's New Organon we find a description of a thermometer, which even gave some reason to consider Bacon the inventor of this device. Bacon also wrote ideas about common system winds globe, but they did not find a response in the works of authors of the 17th - 18th centuries who wrote on the same topic. Bacon's own experimental works, in comparison with his philosophical studies, are, however, of secondary importance.

Galileo did the most for experimental science in the first half of the 17th century, including meteorology. What he gave to meteorology previously seemed secondary in comparison, for example, with Torricelli's contribution to this science. Now we know, however, that in addition to the ideas he first expressed about the weight and pressure of air, Galileo came up with the idea of the first meteorological instruments - a thermometer, a barometer, a rain gauge. Their creation laid the foundation for all modern meteorology.

Rice. 1. Types of mercury barometers: a - cup, b - siphon, c - siphon-cup.

Rice. 2. Station cup barometer; K is the ring on which the barometer is suspended.

Meteorological booth

Purpose. The booth serves to protect meteorological instruments (thermometers, hygrometer) from rain, wind and sunlight.

Materials:

- wooden blocks 50 x 50 mm, length up to 2.5 m, 6 pcs.;
- plywood plates 50-80 mm wide, up to 450 mm long, 50 pcs.;
- hinges for vents, 2 pcs.;
- boards no thicker than 20 mm for making the bottom and roof of the booth;
- white paint, oil or enamel;
- material for the ladder.

Manufacturing. The body is knocked together from the bars. The corner bars should form the high legs of the booth. Shallow cuts are made in the bars at an angle of 45°, plywood plates are inserted into them so that they form the side walls and no gaps are visible through the opposite walls of the booth. The frame of the front wall (door) is made of slats and hung on hinges. Back wall the booths and door are mounted from plywood plates in the same way as the side walls. The bottom and roof are made from boards. The roof must overhang on each side of the booth by at least 50 mm; it is installed obliquely. The booth is painted white.

Installation. The booth is installed so that its bottom is 2 m above the ground. Near it, a permanent ladder is constructed from any material of such a height that the face of the observer standing on it is at the height of the middle of the booth.

Eclimeter

Purpose. Measuring vertical angles, including the heights of celestial bodies.

Materials:

- metal protractor;
- thread with a weight.

Manufacturing. The edges of the base of the protractor are bent at right angles; small sighting holes are punched on the bent parts at the same distance from the horizontal diameter of the protractor. The digitization of the protractor scale changes: 0° is placed where 90° usually stands, and 90° is written in the places 0° and 180°. The end of the thread is fixed in the center of the protractor, the other end of the thread with a weight hangs freely.

Working with the device. Through two sighting holes, we point the device at the desired object (a celestial body or an object on Earth) and read the vertical angle along the thread. You cannot look at the Sun even through small holes; to determine the height of the Sun, you need to find a position such that the sun's ray passes through both sighting holes.

Hygrometer

Purpose. Determination of relative air humidity without the help of tables.

Materials:

- board 200 x 160 mm;
- slats 20 x 20 mm, length up to 400 mm, 3--4 pcs.;
- 5--7 light human hair 300--350 mm long;
- a weight or other weight weighing 5-7 g;
- light metal pointer 200--250 mm long;
- wire, small nails.

Women's hair is needed, it is thinner. Before cutting off 5-7 hairs, you need to thoroughly wash your hair with shampoo for oily hair (even if your hair is non-greasy). There must be a counterweight on the arrow so that the arrow, when placed on a horizontal axis, is in indifferent equilibrium.

Manufacturing. The board serves as the base of the device. A U-shaped frame with a height of 250-300 and a width of 150-200 mm is mounted on it. The crossbar is attached horizontally at a height of about 50 mm from the base. The arrow axis is installed in the middle of it; this could be a nail. The arrow should be put on it with a sleeve. The bushing should rotate freely on the axis. The outer surface of the bushing should not be slippery (you can put a short piece of thin rubber tube). Towards the middle top crossbar hair is attached to the frame, and a weight is suspended from the other end of the hair bundle. The hair should touch the side surface of the sleeve; you need to make one full turn with it. An arc-shaped scale is cut out of cardboard or any other material and attached to the frame. The zero division of the scale (complete air dryness) can, with a certain degree of convention, be applied where the needle of the device stops after being placed in the oven for 3-4 minutes. Mark the maximum humidity (100%) according to the indication of the arrow of the device placed in a closed plastic film a bucket with boiling water poured into the bottom. Divide the interval between 0% and 100% into 10 equal parts and label the tens of percentages. It’s good if you can check the hygrometer readings by checking it with the psychrometer at the weather station.

Installation. It is convenient to keep the device in a meteorological booth; if you want to know the humidity in the room, place it in the room.

Equatorial sundial

Purpose. Determination of true solar time.

Materials:

- square board with a side from 200 to 400mm;
- a wooden or metal stick, you can take a 120mm nail;
- compass;
- protractor;
- oil paints two colors.

Manufacturing. Board - the base of the clock is painted in one color. A dial is drawn on the base using paint of a different color - a circle divided into 24 parts (15° each). 0 is written at the top, 12 at the bottom, 18 at the left, 6 at the right. A gnomon is fixed in the center of the clock - a wooden or metal pin; it needs to be strictly perpendicular to the dial. Installation. The clock is placed at any height in a place as open as possible, not protected from sunlight by buildings or trees. The base of the watch (bottom of the dial) is located in the east-west direction. Top part The dial is raised so that the angle between the plane of the dial and the horizontal plane is 90° minus the angle corresponding to the geographic latitude of the place. Working with the device. The time is read on the dial by the shadow cast by the gnomon. The hours will run from the end of March to September 20-23.

The clock shows the true solar time, do not forget that it differs from the one by which we live, in some places quite significantly. If you want the clock to work in winter, make sure that the gnomon passes through the base board, it will serve as a support in its inclined position, and draw a second dial on the underside of the base; only on it the number 6 will be on the left, and 18 on the right. -- Note ed.

Purpose. Determination of wind direction and strength.

Materials:

- wooden block;
- tin or thin plywood;
- thick wire, 5--7 mm;
- plasticine or window putty;
- Oil paint;
- small nails.

Manufacturing. The weather vane body is made from wooden block 110--120 mm long, which is shaped like a truncated pyramid with bases 50 x 50 mm and 70 x 70 mm. Two tin or plywood wings in the form of trapezoids about 400 mm high, with bases of 50 mm and 200 mm, are nailed to the opposite side faces of the pyramid; tin fenders are better, they do not warp from dampness.

A hole with a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the pin on which the weather vane will rotate is drilled in the center of the block (not through!). It would be good to insert something solid inside the hole, at the very end, so that when the weather vane rotates, the hole does not drill out. A wire is driven into the end part of the weather vane, on the side opposite the wings, so that it protrudes 150-250 mm, and a ball of plasticine or window putty is placed on its end. The weight of the ball is selected so that it balances the wings so that the weather vane does not tip back or forward. It would be good if, instead of plasticine or putty, you could select and secure another, more reliable counterweight to the wire. It is bent from wire and inserted vertically into the upper surface of the weather vane bar, above the axis of its rotation, a rectangular frame 350 mm high. and 200mm wide. The frame must be located perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the weather vane. A tin or plywood board weighing 200 g and measuring 150 x 300 mm is hung on the frame on loops (wire rings). The board should swing freely, but should not move from side to side. A plywood or tin scale of wind strength in points is attached to one of the side posts of the frame. All wooden and plywood parts(and, if desired, the rest) are painted with oil paint.

Installation. According to the standard, the weather vane is installed on a pole dug into the ground or on a tower above the roof of a building at a height of 10 m above ground level. It is quite difficult to comply with this requirement; you will have to proceed from the possibilities, taking into account the visibility of the device from a height of human height. The axis of the weather vane must be installed vertically on a pole, on the sides of which there should be pins indicating eight directions: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW. Of these, only one, directed to the north, should have a clearly visible letter C.

Working with the device. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing, so it is read by the position of the counterweight, not the wings of the weather vane. The strength of the wind in points is read by the degree of deflection of the weather vane board. If the board oscillates, its average position is taken into account; when isolated strong gusts of wind are observed, the maximum wind force is indicated. Thus, the entry “SW 3 (5)” means: southwest wind, force 3, gusts up to force 5.

Meteorological stations

Hair hygrometer: 1 -- hair; 2 -- frame; 3 -- arrow; 4 -- scale.

Film hygrometer: 1 -- membrane; 2 -- arrow; 3 -- scale.

Meteorological instruments used by R. Hooke in the middle of the 17th century: barometer ( A), anemometer ( b) and compass ( V) determined the pressure, speed and direction of the wind as a function of time, of course, if there was a clock. In order to understand the causes and properties of movement atmospheric air, numerous and fairly accurate measurements were needed, and therefore, fairly cheap and accurate instruments. Image: Quantum

Internal structure of an aneroid.

Location of weather stations on Earth

Images from space weather stations

Gneusheva Nadya 2008-2009 academic year

1. What are meteorological instruments. 2. What are meteorological elements 3. Thermometer 4. Barometer 5. Hygrometer 6. Precipitation gauge 7. Snow gauge 8. Thermograph 9. Heliograph 10. Nephoscope 11. Ceilometer 12. Anemometer 13. Hydrological observation unit 14. Blizzard gauge 15. Meteorograph 16. Radiosonde 17. Sounding balloon 18. Pilot balloon 19. Weather rocket 20. Weather satellite Contents

Meteorological instruments - instruments and installations for measuring and recording the values of meteorological elements. To compare the results of measurements made at different weather stations, meteorological instruments are made of the same type and installed so that their readings do not depend on random local conditions.

Meteorological instruments are designed to operate in natural conditions in any climatic zones. Therefore, they must work flawlessly, maintaining stable readings in a wide range of temperatures, high humidity, precipitation, and should not be afraid of large wind loads and dust.

Meteorological elements, characteristics of the state of the atmosphere: temperature, pressure and humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness, precipitation, visibility (transparency of the atmosphere), as well as soil and water surface temperature, solar radiation, long-wave radiation of the Earth and the atmosphere. Meteorological elements also include various weather phenomena: thunderstorms, snowstorms, etc. Changes in Meteorological elements are the result of atmospheric processes and determine the weather and climate.

Thermometer From the Greek Therme - heat + Metreo - measure Thermometer - a device for measuring the temperature of air, soil, water, etc. during thermal contact between the measured object and sensitive element thermometer. Thermometers are used in meteorology, hydrology and other sciences and industries. At weather stations where temperature measurements are carried out at certain times, a maximum thermometer (mercury) is used to record maximum temperatures between observation periods; the lowest temperature between periods is recorded by a minimum thermometer (alcohol).

Barometer From the Greek Baros - heaviness + Metreo - measure Barometer - a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. Barometers are divided into liquid barometers and aneroid barometers.

Hygrometer From Greek. Hygros - wet hygrometer - a device for measuring the humidity of air or other gases. There are hair, condensation and weight hygrometers, as well as recording hygrometers (hygrographs).

Precipitation gauge Rain gauge; Pluviometer Precipitation gauge is a device for collecting and measuring the amount of precipitation. The precipitation gauge is a cylindrical bucket of a strictly defined cross-section, installed at the weather site. The amount of precipitation is determined by pouring the precipitation that fell into the bucket into a special rain gauge glass, the cross-sectional area of which is also known. Solid precipitation (snow, pellets, hail) is preliminarily melted. The design of the rain gauge provides protection from rapid evaporation of precipitation and from blowing out snow that gets into the rain gauge bucket.

Snow measuring staff Snow measuring staff is a staff designed to measure the thickness of snow cover during meteorological observations.

Thermograph From the Greek Therme - heat + Grapho - I write Thermograph is a recorder device that continuously records air temperature and records its changes in the form of a curve. The thermograph is located at the weather station in a special booth.

Heliograph From Greek. Helios - Sun + Grapho - writing Heliograph - a recorder device that records the duration of sunshine. The main part of the device is a crystal ball with a diameter of about 90 mm, which works as a converging lens when illuminated from any direction, and the focal length is the same in all directions. On focal length A cardboard strip with divisions is placed parallel to the surface of the ball. The sun, moving across the sky during the day, burns a stripe in this ribbon. During those hours when the Sun is covered by clouds, there is no burn-through. The time when the Sun was shining and when it was hidden is read by the divisions on the tape.

Nephoscope Nephoscope is a device designed to determine the relative speed of movement of clouds and the direction of their movement.

Ceilometer A ceilometer is a device for determining the height of the lower and upper boundaries of clouds, raised on a balloon. The action of the ceilometer is based: - either on a change in the resistance of the photocell, which reacts to changes in illumination when entering and leaving the clouds; - or on the change in the resistance of a conductor with a hygroscopic coating when cloud drops hit its surface.

Anemometer From the Greek Anemos - wind + Metreo - I measure Anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed and gas flows by the number of revolutions of a turntable rotating under the influence of the wind. There are anemometers different types: manual and permanently attached to masts, etc. A distinction is made between recording anemometers (anemographs).

Hydrological observation installation Hydrological observation installation is a stationary installation for conducting observations of elements of the hydrological regime.

Blizzard meter Blizzard meter is a device used to determine the amount of snow carried by the wind.

Radiosonde A radiosonde is a device for meteorological research in the atmosphere up to an altitude of 30-35 km. The radiosonde rises on a free-flying hot-air balloon and automatically transmits radio signals to the ground corresponding to the values of pressure, temperature, and humidity. At high altitudes, the balloon bursts, and the instruments are parachuted and can be used again.

A balloon is a rubber balloon with a meteorograph attached to it, released into free flight. At a certain altitude, after the shell ruptures, the meteorograph descends to the ground by parachute.

Pilot balloon A pilot balloon is a rubber balloon filled with hydrogen and released into free flight. By determining its position using theodolites or radar methods, it is possible to calculate the wind speed and direction.

Meteorological rocket A meteorological rocket is a rocket vehicle launched into the atmosphere to study it upper layers, mainly the mesosphere and ionosphere. Instruments are being explored Atmosphere pressure, Earth's magnetic field, cosmic radiation, spectra of solar and terrestrial radiation, air composition, etc. Instrument readings are transmitted in the form of radio signals.

Meteorological satellite A meteorological satellite is an artificial Earth satellite that records and transmits various meteorological data to Earth. The meteorological satellite is designed to monitor the distribution of cloud, snow and ice cover, measure thermal radiation from the earth's surface and atmosphere and reflected solar radiation in order to obtain meteorological data for weather forecasting.

Sources of information 1. Great Encyclopedia for children. Volume 1 2. www.yandex.ru 3. Pictures – search system www.yandex.ru

Meteorological instruments are designed to operate in natural conditions in any climatic zone. Therefore, they must work flawlessly, maintaining stable readings in a wide range of temperatures, high humidity, precipitation, and should not be afraid of large wind loads and dust.

Thermometer From the Greek Therme - heat + Metreo - measure Thermometer - a device for measuring the temperature of air, soil, water, etc. during thermal contact between the measurement object and the sensitive element of the thermometer. Thermometers are used in meteorology, hydrology and other sciences and industries. At weather stations where temperature measurements are carried out at certain times, a maximum thermometer (mercury) is used to record maximum temperatures between observation periods; the lowest temperature between periods is recorded by a minimum thermometer (alcohol).

Heliograph From Greek. Helios - Sun + Grapho - writing Heliograph - a recorder device that records the duration of sunshine. The main part of the device is a crystal ball with a diameter of about 90 mm, which works as a converging lens when illuminated from any direction, and the focal length is the same in all directions. At the focal length, parallel to the surface of the ball, there is a cardboard tape with divisions. The sun, moving across the sky during the day, burns a stripe in this ribbon. During those hours when the Sun is covered by clouds, there is no burn-through. The time when the Sun was shining and when it was hidden is read by the divisions on the tape.

Anemometer From the Greek Anemos - wind + Metreo - I measure Anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed and gas flows by the number of revolutions of a turntable rotating under the influence of the wind. There are different types of anemometers: manual and permanently mounted on masts, etc. A distinction is made between recording anemometers (anemographs).

Radiosonde A radiosonde is a device for meteorological research in the atmosphere up to an altitude of km. The radio probe rises on a balloon released into free flight and automatically transmits to the ground radio signals corresponding to the values of pressure, temperature, and humidity. At high altitudes, the balloon bursts, and the instruments are parachuted and can be used again.

Meteorological rocket A meteorological rocket is a rocket vehicle launched into the atmosphere to study its upper layers, mainly the mesosphere and ionosphere. The instruments study atmospheric pressure, the Earth's magnetic field, cosmic radiation, spectra of solar and terrestrial radiation, air composition, etc. Instrument readings are transmitted in the form of radio signals.

Meteorological instruments

instruments and installations for measuring and recording the values of meteorological elements (See Meteorological elements). M. p. are designed to work in natural conditions in any climatic zones. Therefore, they must work flawlessly, maintaining stable readings in a wide range of temperatures, high humidity, precipitation, and should not be afraid of large wind loads and dust. To compare the results of measurements made at different weather stations, meteorological stations are made of the same type and installed so that their readings do not depend on random local conditions.

Meteorological thermometers are used to measure (register) air and soil temperatures various types and thermographs. Air humidity is measured by Psychrometer, Hygrometer, hygrographs, atmospheric pressure - Barometer, Aneroid , barographs, gypsothermometer ami. An anemometer is used to measure wind speed and direction. , anemographs, anemorumbometers, anemorumbographs, weather vanes. The amount and intensity of precipitation is determined using rain gauges, precipitation gauges, and pluviographs. The intensity of solar radiation, radiation of the earth's surface and atmosphere is measured by Pyrheliometer ami, Pyrgeometer ami, Actinometer ami, Pyranometer ami , pyranographs, Albedometer ami, Balance meter ami , and the duration of sunshine is recorded by the Heliograph. The water reserve in the snow cover is measured by a snow meter , dew - rosographer , evaporation - with an evaporator (See Evaporator), visibility - with a nephelometer and visibility meter, elements of atmospheric electricity - Electrometer ami, etc. All higher value acquire remote and automatic meteorological devices for measuring one or more meteorological elements.

Lit.: Kedrolivansky V.N., Sternzat M.S., Meteorological Instruments, Leningrad, 1953; Sternzat M.S., Meteorological instruments and observations, Leningrad, 1968; Handbook of hydrometeorological instruments and installations, L., 1971.

S.I. Nepomnyashchy.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

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Nastich Nadezhda Valentinovna

Thermometer

Thermometer is a device for measuring the temperature of air, soil, water, and so on. There are several types of thermometers:

liquid;

mechanical;

electronic;

optical;

infrared.

Psychrometer

A psychrometer is a device for measuring air humidity and temperature. The simplest psychrometer consists of two alcohol thermometers. One thermometer is dry, and the second has a humidification device. The alcohol flask of a wet thermometer is wrapped in cambric tape, the end of which is in a vessel with water. Due to the evaporation of moisture, the moistened thermometer cools.

Barometer

Barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercury barometer was invented by the Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli in 1644; it was a plate with mercury poured into it and a test tube (flask) placed with the hole down. When atmospheric pressure increased, the mercury in the test tube rose, and when it decreased, the mercury fell.

Usually used in everyday life mechanical barometers. There is no liquid in the aneroid. Translated from Greek, “aneroid” means “without water.” It shows the atmospheric pressure acting on the corrugated thin-walled metal box, in which a vacuum is created.

Anemometer

Anemometer, wind meter - a device for measuring the speed of movement of gases and air in systems, for example, ventilation. In meteorology it is used to measure wind speed.

Based on the principle of operation, mechanical anemometers, thermal anemometers, and ultrasonic anemometers are distinguished.

The most common type of anemometer is the cup anemometer. Invented by Dr John Thomas Romney Robinson, who worked at the Armagh Observatory, in 1846. It consists of four hemispherical cups, symmetrically mounted on the cross-shaped spokes of a rotor rotating on a vertical axis.

Wind from any direction rotates the rotor at a speed proportional to the wind speed.

Precipitation gauge

A precipitation gauge, rain gauge, pluviometer or pluviograph is a device for measuring atmospheric liquid and solid precipitation.

The device of the Tretyakov precipitation gauge

The precipitation gauge set consists of two metal vessels for collecting and storing precipitation, one lid for them, a tagan for installing precipitation vessels, wind protection and two measuring cups.

Pluviograph

A device designed for continuous recording of the amount and intensity of falling liquid precipitation with reference to time (beginning of precipitation, end, etc.), and on modern weather vanes - using an electronic device.

The weather vane often serves decorative element- for home decoration. The weather vane can also be used for protection chimney from suffocation.

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