Pollution of the Earth's atmosphere - change natural concentration gases and impurities in the air envelope of the planet, as well as the introduction of substances alien to it into the environment.

They first started talking about it at the international level forty years ago. In 1979, the Long Range Transboundary Convention appeared in Geneva. The first international agreement to reduce emissions was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.

Although these measures are bringing results, air pollution remains a serious problem for society.

Air pollutants

Main components atmospheric air– nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The share of the inert gas argon is slightly less than one percent. The carbon dioxide concentration is 0.03%. The following are also present in the atmosphere in small quantities:

• ozone,
• neon,
• methane,
• xenon,
• krypton,
• nitrous oxide,
• sulfur dioxide,
• helium and hydrogen.

In clean air masses, carbon monoxide and ammonia are present in trace form. In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains water vapor, salt crystals, and dust.

Main air pollutants:

• Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that affects the heat exchange between the Earth and the surrounding space, and therefore the climate.
• Carbon monoxide or carbon monoxide When entering the human or animal body, it causes poisoning (even death).
• Hydrocarbons are toxic chemical substances, irritating to eyes and mucous membranes.
• Sulfur derivatives contribute to the formation and drying of plants, provoke respiratory diseases and allergies.
• Nitrogen derivatives lead to pneumonia, cereals, bronchitis, frequent colds, and aggravate the course of cardiovascular diseases.
• , accumulating in the body, cause cancer, gene changes, infertility, and premature death.

Air containing heavy metals poses a particular danger to human health. Pollutants such as cadmium, lead, and arsenic lead to oncology. Inhaled mercury vapor does not act immediately, but, deposited in the form of salts, destroys nervous system. In significant concentrations, volatile organic substances are also harmful: terpenoids, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols. Many of these air pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic.

Sources and classification of atmospheric pollution

Based on the nature of the phenomenon, the following types of air pollution are distinguished: chemical, physical and biological.

• In the first case, an increased concentration of hydrocarbons, heavy metals, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, aldehydes, nitrogen and carbon oxides is observed in the atmosphere.
• At biological pollution there are waste products in the air various organisms, toxins, viruses, spores of fungi and bacteria.
• Large amounts of dust or radionuclides in the atmosphere indicate physical contamination. This type also includes the consequences of thermal, noise and electromagnetic emissions.

The composition of the air environment is influenced by both man and nature. Natural sources of air pollution: volcanoes during activity, forest fires, soil erosion, dust storms, decomposition of living organisms. A tiny share of the influence also comes from cosmic dust formed as a result of the combustion of meteorites.

Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:

• enterprises of the chemical, fuel, metallurgical, engineering industries;
• agricultural activities (aerial pesticide spraying, livestock waste);
• thermal power plants, heating of residential premises with coal and wood;
• transport (the dirtiest types are planes and cars).

How is the degree of air pollution determined?

When monitoring the quality of atmospheric air in a city, not only the concentration of substances harmful to human health is taken into account, but also the time period of their exposure. Air pollution in Russian Federation assessed according to the following criteria:

• Standard index (SI) is an indicator obtained by dividing the highest measured single concentration of a polluting material by the maximum permissible concentration of an impurity.
• The index of pollution of our atmosphere (API) is a complex value, when calculating it, the coefficient of harmfulness of the pollutant is taken into account, as well as its concentration - the average annual and maximum permissible average daily.
• Highest frequency (MR) – the percentage frequency of exceeding the maximum permissible concentration (maximum one-time) during a month or year.

The level of air pollution is considered low when the SI is less than 1, the API ranges from 0–4, and the NP does not exceed 10%. Among large Russian cities, according to Rosstat materials, the most environmentally friendly are Taganrog, Sochi, Grozny and Kostroma.

With an increased level of emissions into the atmosphere, SI is 1–5, IZA – 5–6, NP – 10–20%. High degree air pollution differs between regions with indicators: SI – 5–10, IZA – 7–13, NP – 20–50%. Very high level atmospheric pollution is observed in Chita, Ulan-Ude, Magnitogorsk and Beloyarsk.

Cities and countries in the world with the dirtiest air

In May 2016, the World Health Organization published annual ranking cities with the dirtiest air. The leader of the list was the Iranian city of Zabol, a city in the southeast of the country that regularly suffers from sandstorms. This atmospheric phenomenon lasts for about four months, repeats every year. The second and third positions were taken by the Indian million-plus cities of Gwaliyar and Prayag. The WHO gave the next place to the capital of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh.

Rounding out the top five cities with the dirtiest atmosphere is Al-Jubail, a relatively small place in terms of population on the shores of the Persian Gulf and at the same time a large industrial oil-producing and refining center. The Indian cities of Patna and Raipur again found themselves on the sixth and seventh steps. The main sources of air pollution there are industrial enterprises and transport.

In most cases, air pollution is a pressing problem for developing countries. However, the deterioration of the environment is caused not only by rapidly growing industry and transport infrastructure, but also by man-made disasters. A striking example of this is Japan, which experienced radiation accident in 2011.

The top 7 states where the air condition is considered depressing is as follows:

1. China. In some regions of the country, the level of air pollution exceeds the norm by 56 times.
2. India. The largest state of Hindustan leads in the number of cities with the worst ecology.
3. SOUTH AFRICA. The country's economy is dominated by heavy industry, which is also the main source of pollution.
4. Mexico. The environmental situation in the capital of the state, Mexico City, has improved markedly over the past twenty years, but smog is still not uncommon in the city.
5. Indonesia suffers not only from industrial emissions, but also from forest fires.
6. Japan. The country, despite widespread landscaping and the use of scientific and technological achievements in the environmental sphere, regularly faces the problem of acid rain and smog.
7. Libya. The main source of environmental woes in the North African state is the oil industry.

Consequences

Air pollution is one of the main reasons for the increase in the number of respiratory diseases, both acute and chronic. Harmful impurities contained in the air contribute to the development of lung cancer, heart disease, and stroke. According to WHO estimates, air pollution causes 3.7 million premature deaths worldwide each year. Most such cases are recorded in the countries of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific region.

In large industrial centers, such an unpleasant phenomenon as smog is often observed. The accumulation of dust, water and smoke particles in the air reduces visibility on the roads, which leads to an increase in the number of accidents. Aggressive substances increase corrosion metal structures, negatively affect the state of flora and fauna. Smog poses the greatest danger to asthmatics, people suffering from emphysema, bronchitis, angina pectoris, hypertension, and VSD. Even healthy people, inhaled aerosols, you may experience a severe headache, watery eyes and a sore throat.

Saturation of air with sulfur and nitrogen oxides leads to the formation of acid rain. After precipitation from low level pH in reservoirs kills fish, and surviving individuals cannot give birth to offspring. As a result, the species and numerical composition of populations is reduced. Acidic precipitation leaches nutrients, thereby depleting the soil. They leave chemical burns on the leaves and weaken the plants. Such rains and fogs also pose a threat to human habitats: acidic water corrodes pipes, cars, building facades, and monuments.

An increased amount of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, water vapor) in the air leads to an increase in the temperature of the lower layers of the Earth's atmosphere. The direct consequence is the warming of the climate that has been observed over the past sixty years.

Weather conditions are significantly affected by and formed under the influence of bromine, chlorine, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Besides simple substances, ozone molecules can also destroy organic and inorganic compounds: freon derivatives, methane, hydrogen chloride. Why is weakening the shield dangerous for the environment and people? Due to the thinning of the layer, solar activity increases, which, in turn, leads to an increase in mortality among representatives of marine flora and fauna, and an increase in the number of cancer diseases.

How to make the air cleaner?

The introduction of technologies in production that reduce emissions makes it possible to reduce air pollution. In the field of thermal power engineering, one should rely on alternative energy sources: build solar, wind, geothermal, tidal and wave power plants. The state of the air environment is positively affected by the transition to combined energy and heat generation.

In the fight for fresh air important element strategy is a comprehensive waste management program. It should be aimed at reducing the amount of waste, as well as sorting, recycling or reuse. Urban planning aimed at improving the environment, including the air environment, involves improving the energy efficiency of buildings, building cycling infrastructure, and developing high-speed urban transport.

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Introduction

Atmospheric air pollution by natural and anthropogenic emissions in agricultural and industrialized areas and especially in major cities, has become an important problem, the severity of which is constantly increasing from year to year. Emissions from the growing fleet of vehicles, thermal power plants, the construction and mining industries, the domestic sector, and the use of fertilizers in agriculture and other sources leads to the fact that the surface layers of the atmosphere over large areas are heavily polluted with various ingredients. All this worsens the environmental living conditions of the population and negatively affects the health and life expectancy of people. Thus, calm and weak winds, inversion layers in the atmosphere, and fogs contribute to an increase in the concentrations of impurities, creating significant atmospheric pollution over certain regions. Moderate and strong winds lead to the dispersion of impurities and their transport over long distances. Long continuous rains clean the atmosphere well, while torrential rains have a weaker washing out effect due to their short duration. Synoptic situations, being a complex of various weather and meteorological conditions, integrally determine the pollution regime over a specific territory. In this regard, solving the problem of preserving the purity of atmospheric air in cities largely depends on understanding the role of meteorological conditions and correct accounting the ability of the atmosphere to self-purify.

The purpose of this course work is a study from literary sources of the issue of atmospheric air pollution, as well as a study of air pollution in the city of Balakovo in the autumn seasons of 2006-2007.

1 . Meteorological conditions for the formation of the level of air pollution

As is known, to a sharp increase in concentrations harmful substances in the surface layer of the atmosphere are caused by unfavorable meteorological conditions. It has now been established that there is a certain connection between the levels of air pollution and climatic factors. The degree and intensity of air pollution is affected by terrain, wind direction and speed, humidity, amount, intensity and duration of precipitation, circulation air flow, inversions, etc.

During certain periods unfavorable for the dispersion of emissions, the concentrations of harmful substances can increase sharply relative to the average or background urban pollution. The frequency and duration of periods of high atmospheric air pollution will depend on the regime of emissions of harmful substances (one-time, emergency, etc.), as well as on the nature and duration of weather conditions that contribute to an increase in the concentration of impurities in the ground layer of air.

In order to avoid increasing levels of atmospheric air pollution under meteorological conditions unfavorable for the dispersion of harmful substances, it is necessary to predict and take into account these conditions. Currently, factors have been established that determine changes in the concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air when meteorological conditions change.

Forecasts of adverse weather conditions can be made for the city as a whole, for groups of sources, or for individual sources. Usually there are three main types of sources: high with hot (warm) emissions, high with cold emissions, low.

Usually there are three main types of sources: high with hot (warm) emissions, high with cold emissions, low. For the indicated types of emission sources, anomalously unfavorable conditions for the dispersion of impurities are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Complexes of adverse meteorological conditions for sources of different types

Sources	Thermal stratification of the lower atmosphere	Wind speed (m/s) at level	Type of inversion, height above the emission source, m
High with hot emissions	unstable			Raised, 100-200
High with cold emissions	unstable			Raised, 10-200
	sustainable			Prizemnaya, 2-50

In addition to the complexes of unfavorable weather conditions given in table. 1 you can add the following:

For high sources with hot (warm) emissions:

a) the height of the mixing layer is less than 500 m, but greater than the effective height of the source; the wind speed at the height of the source is close to dangerous wind speed;

b) the presence of fog and wind speed more than 2 m/s.

For high sources with cold emissions: presence of fog and calm.

For low emission sources: a combination of calm and surface inversion. It should also be borne in mind that when transporting impurities into densely built areas or in conditions difficult terrain concentrations can increase several times.

1.1 The influence of wind conditions on the level of atmospheric pollution. Directedwind speed

IN Lately great importance studies of the patterns of distribution of atmospheric impurities and the characteristics of their spatio-temporal distribution depending on the wind regime of the territory are acquired. They are the basis for an objective assessment of the state and trend of changes in air pollution, as well as the development of possible measures to ensure the cleanliness of the atmosphere.

The nature of the transport and dispersion of impurities mainly depends on the wind regime, as well as on the source of the emission.

For low and unorganized emission sources, the formation higher level air pollution occurs in weak winds due to the accumulation of impurities in the surface layer of the atmosphere, and in very strong winds concentrations decrease due to rapid transfer.

In cities with a large number of low sources, an increase in pollution levels occurs when wind speed decreases to 1-2 m/s. Thus, it has been established that dust concentrations. S02, CO and NO2 increase by 30-40% compared to the level at other wind speeds. Particularly unfavorable conditions are created when weak winds persist long time and are observed over a large area.

With emissions from industrial enterprises With tall pipes Significant concentrations of impurities near the ground are observed at so-called “dangerous” wind speeds. For pipes large power plants this speed is 4-6 m/s (depending on the emission parameters), and for relatively cold emissions from ventilation devices at chemical and other enterprises, dangerous wind speed is 1-2 m/s.

Wind direction has a great influence on the formation of air pollution levels. In cities where emission sources are located in the same area, the highest background concentration of impurities will be observed when there are winds from these sources. In the case of diffuse emission sources, pollutant concentrations have little or no dependence on wind direction. Often the area of ​​greatest air pollution occurs in the city center. However, due to the uniqueness of the terrain, each city reacts to wind conditions differently, especially when the terrain is complex.

The dependence of the level of air pollution in a city on wind direction is quite simple. If enterprises are located on the outskirts or outside the city, then concentrations in urban areas increase as emitted impurities are transferred from emission sources. However, even in such simple cases, the influence of wind direction on the level of air pollution in the city should be specially studied, since it must be taken into account that the air flow can be distorted under the influence of complex terrain, reservoirs, as well as the direct thermal impact of large industrial complexes. Unfavorable wind directions can also be detected when sources are evenly distributed throughout the city due to various effects of overlapping emissions.

In some cities that have a shape close to a rectangle or ellipse, air pollution is increased when the wind is directed along this rectangle or the major axis of the ellipse. Depending on the wind speed at the weather vane level, the presence of two maxima of air pollution is revealed: during calm conditions and at wind speeds of about 4 - 6 m/s, which is associated with the action of two classes of sources, high and low. The maximum in calm conditions is more clearly manifested in the presence of a surface inversion, the maximum in moderate winds - in its absence.

The situation when there is no surface inversion during calm conditions is associated with relatively reduced air pollution in the city as a whole.

The following patterns are typical for different cities and seasons:

· with stable stratification, air pollution decreases with increasing wind speed;

· with unstable stratification, maximum air pollution is observed at wind speeds close to dangerous for the main sources of emissions located in the city.

Wind speeds of approximately 500 - 1000 m can characterize the intensity of the removal of the upper part of the urban “smoke cap” outside the city. It is found that as winds increase at these altitudes, air pollution on average decreases slightly. At the same time, the effect of a decrease in concentrations is revealed when a very weak wind (1 - 2 m/s) is established at the indicated levels. This may be due to an increase in the rise of superheated air over the city.

1.2 Atmospheric stability

There are numerous indications of the formation of increased levels of air pollution with stable stratification of the lower layer of the atmosphere, primarily in the presence of surface and low-lying elevated inversions. Under conditions of elevated inversions, the propagation of impurities in the vertical direction is limited. Concentrations of air pollutants increase if an elevated inversion is accompanied by unstable stratification. The dependence of air pollution on atmospheric stability is largely determined by wind speed.

Air pollution is most dependent on thermal stratification at very low surface winds. At the same time, with increasing stability, the concentration of impurities increases. With moderate winds, 3-7 m/s, with increased stability, air pollution is reduced. With strong winds and atmospheric stability, there is practically no connection between them. The nature of the joint influence of thermal stratification and wind speed for different cities and all seasons of the year is approximately the same.

1.3 Thermal stability of the atmosphere. Air temperature

Thermal stability is characterized by the vertical difference in air temperature? T. A dependence of the parameter P on?T is detected in the layer from the ground to the level AT925gPa or AT500gPa. The relationship between P and ?T is most significant under inversion conditions, with an inverse linear correlation occurring.

On average, air pollution is increased when calm is accompanied by a surface inversion, that is, in a situation of air stagnation. During stagnation, there is practically no air transfer and its vertical mixing is sharply weakened.

At the same time, in conditions of stagnation, a high level of air pollution is not always observed. In such conditions, periods with P>0.2 are observed only in 60 - 70% of cases. This means that, along with the process of transport and dispersion of impurities, there are other factors that determine the level of concentrations of impurities in the city.

One of these factors is the thermal state of the air mass, characterized by air temperature. IN winter time Most often, an increase in pollution levels is found as the temperature decreases. This is primarily characteristic of anticyclonic weather, when low temperatures stable thermal stratification is established in the air. In addition, as the temperature decreases, the amount of fuel burned increases and, consequently, the amount of harmful substances released into the atmosphere. Thus, the increase in air pollution with decreasing temperature is associated not only with the thermal state of the air mass, but also with related factors.

With weak winds, air pollution in the city in some cases increases with increasing air temperature. This is most clearly revealed in winter under conditions of stagnant air that persists throughout the day. Thus, the situation of air stagnation in combination with relatively high temperatures is unfavorable. Significant air pollution in winter is also detected when comparatively high temperatures accompanied by a wind speed of no more than 4-5 m/s. Such conditions are usually observed in warm sectors of cyclones.

Adverse weather conditions also include temperature inversions, which characterize the stratification features of the lower layer of the troposphere. Inversions that form at a certain height from the ground surface (elevated inversions) create a barrier (ceiling) for vertical air exchange. The increase in the ground concentration of impurities from emissions from high sources in this case significantly depends on the height of the location of the lower boundary of the inversion above the source and on the height of the source itself. If the inversion layer is located directly above the pipe, then anomalous and very dangerous pollution conditions are created due to the limitation of the rise of emissions and the obstacle to their penetration into the upper layers of the atmosphere. The increase in the maximum concentration of impurities near the ground under these conditions is approximately 50-70%. If the layer of weakened turbulence is located at a sufficiently high altitude from the source (200 m or more), the increase in the impurity concentration will be small. As the distance from the source increases, the influence of the delay layer increases. At the same time, a temperature inversion layer located below the emission level will prevent the transfer of impurities to the ground.

For urban conditions, in the presence of a large number of low emission sources, dangerous conditions for the accumulation of impurities are created during surface and elevated inversions, since both of them lead to a weakening of the vertical dispersion and transport of impurities.

1.4 Precipitation. Fogs

The main mechanism for removing impurities from the atmosphere is their washing away by precipitation. The effectiveness of air purification in this way is mainly related to their quantity and duration. This applies to citywide air pollution, to concentrations formed outside the direct influence of emission sources. When impurities are transferred from objects, the effect of washing out impurities from the air is manifested to a lesser extent.

Precipitation washes impurities out of the atmosphere. The restoration of the initial level of air pollution in the city occurs gradually, within approximately 12 hours.

The air is cleanest immediately after precipitation. In the first 12 hours after their precipitation, the frequency of high concentrations is lower than in subsequent hours. The degree of air purification depends on the amount of precipitation - the more precipitation falls, the cleaner the air.

The indicated dependencies relate to citywide air pollution, to concentrations formed outside the direct influence of sources. When emissions are directly transferred from sources, the effect of washing out impurities from the air is less pronounced.

The influence of fog on the content and distribution of impurities in the air is very complex and varied. Here, specific weather conditions (inversions, calm or weak winds) are quite often observed, which in themselves contribute to the accumulation of impurities in the ground layer, and impurities are also absorbed by droplets. These impurities with droplets remain in the ground layer of air. Due to the creation of significant concentration gradients (outside the droplets), impurities are transferred from the surrounding space to the fog area, so the total concentration of substances increases. A significant danger is the location of smoke plumes above the fog layer, which, under the influence of this effect, spread into the ground layer of air.

The accumulation of impurities in the atmosphere, caused by weak winds in a large thickness of the atmosphere and inversions, increases in foggy conditions. Fogs containing particles of smoke and harmful substances are called smogs. The presence of smog is associated with periods of particularly dangerous air pollution, accompanied by an increase in morbidity and mortality among the population. There are smogs associated with the deposition of harmful substances on fog droplets and those formed as a result of photochemical reactions of harmful substances.

In fogs, the effect of accumulation of impurities from above and underlying layers is observed. As a result of this effect, the concentration of impurities in the air and droplets in the fog increases. When impurities are absorbed by moisture, new, more toxic substances are formed.

At low air temperatures (-35° C and below), emissions from thermal power plants and boiler houses contribute to the formation of fog containing particles of frozen moisture with a high content of sulfuric acid.

In the presence of inversion and fog, the content of impurities is 20-30% higher than in fog alone, and 6 hours after the onset of fog in the presence of inversion this difference is 30-60%.

Dangerous conditions of air pollution also developed with photochemical smog. Oxidizing agents, including ozone, are products of reactions between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Chemical reactions, leading to the formation of photochemical smog, are very complex, and their number is large. Ozone and atomic oxygen, interacting with organic compounds, form a substance that is the main visible and most harmful end product of photochemical smog - peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). Since PAN concentrations are not usually measured, the intensity of smog is characterized by the ozone concentration. Weak smog is usually observed at an ozone concentration of 0.2-0.35 mg/m3. The formation of photochemical smog occurs in areas where the influx of solar radiation is greatest, and the intensity of vehicle traffic causes high concentrations of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

1.5 Inertial factor

R R R(or another general indicator of air pollution in the city) is high, then air pollution on the current day, as a rule, is increased. The opposite situation occurs when the value of the city-wide pollution indicator on the previous day is small ( R?<0,1). В этом случае в последующие дни загрязнение воздуха чаще всего понижено, в том числе и в такой неблагоприятной ситуации, как застой воздуха. Коэффициент корреляции между значениями параметра R on neighboring days it is 0.6-0.7.

The effect of the above factor is largely determined by meteorological inertia, which means the tendency to maintain atmospheric processes that determine the level of concentrations. Some of the meteorological factors influencing air pollutant concentrations may be unknown and, when taking into account the steady-state level of air pollution, they are taken into account to some extent automatically. The inertia of air pollution itself can also play a significant role.

1.6 Meteorological potential for self-purification of the atmosphere

The influence of meteorological factors on the level of air pollution is manifested more clearly if a combination of meteorological quantities is considered. Recently, along with such complex characteristics as the atmospheric pollution potential (APP) and the dispersive ability of the atmosphere (SCA), the atmospheric self-purification coefficient has been used.

The potential for air pollution is the ratio of the average levels of concentrations of harmful impurities for given emissions in a specific qavg. i and conditional qavg about the area:

RSA is the reciprocal of PZA. The atmospheric self-purification coefficient K is defined as the ratio of the frequency of conditions conducive to the accumulation of impurities to the frequency of conditions conducive to the removal of impurities from the atmosphere:

where Рш 0 frequency of wind speeds 0 0 1 m/s, Рт 0 frequency of fogs, Рв 0 frequency of wind speeds?? 6 m/s, Рo 0 frequency of precipitation?? 0.5 mm.

However, in this form, K characterizes the conditions of accumulation, not dispersion. Therefore, it is better to consider the coefficient of self-purification of the atmosphere as the value K2, the inverse of K.

For those areas in which the recurrence of fogs is low, but the recurrence of surface retention layers (SLL) is significant, it makes sense when calculating K2 to take into account instead of the recurrence of fogs (Pt), the recurrence of the SLL (Rin). Then

Rv + Ro

K2 =--------------

Rsh + Rin

At K2???0.33, conditions are extremely unfavorable for dispersion; at 0.33< K2???0,8 - неблагоприятные, при 0,8 < K2??1,25 - ограниченно благоприятные и при К2?>1.25 - favorable conditions.

The atmospheric self-purification coefficient makes it possible to assess the contribution of meteorological quantities and phenomena to the formation of the level of air pollution.

2 Assessment of atmospheric air pollution in the city.Balakovo in the autumn seasons of 2006-2007

Currently, to assess the level of air pollution in Russia, the State Air Pollution Monitoring Network (GSMZA) has been created, which covers 264 cities (659 Roshydromet stations and 64 departmental stations - 1996).

Main tasks Federal system air pollution monitoring are a comprehensive and complete assessment of the state of air pollution in Russian cities for decision-making on environmental safety, monitoring the effectiveness of measures to reduce emissions, identifying areas with dangerously high levels of pollution that pose a risk to the health and life of the population. The Council of the European Economic Community in 1996 recommended a list of substances whose concentrations must be controlled in all countries: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, suspended particles with a diameter of less than 10 microns (PM-10), total suspended solids, lead, ozone, benzene, carbon monoxide, cadmium, arsenic, nickel, mercury, aromatic hydrocarbons, including benzo(a)pyrene. From this list, the concentrations of PM-10 and ozone are not currently determined in Russia; the concentrations of cadmium and arsenic are occasionally measured. In most cities there are 205 stationary posts (PNS), in large cities with a population of more than 1 million inhabitants - more than 10. There are also regular observations at route posts, using vehicles equipped for this purpose.

Observations at stationary posts are carried out according to one of three programs: full, incomplete and shortened. Observations under the full program are carried out four times a day: at 1, 7, 13, 19 o'clock local time, under an incomplete program - three times a day: at 7, 13, 19 o'clock, under a shortened program - at 7 and 13 o'clock.

In each city, the concentrations of the main and most characteristic substances for emissions from industrial enterprises are determined. For example, in the area of ​​an aluminum smelter, hydrogen fluoride concentrations are assessed; in the area of ​​enterprises producing mineral fertilizers, determine the concentrations of ammonia and nitrogen oxides, etc. The rules for performing work related to the organization and operation of an air pollution monitoring network are reflected in the “Guidelines for Air Pollution Control”.

Currently, much work is underway to create an automatic environmental observation and monitoring network (ANCOS), with the help of which five pollutants and four meteorological parameters are determined. Information enters the collection center on a computer, which processes and reproduces it on a television screen.

2.1 General indicators of air pollution

To assess the degree of air pollution in the city as a whole, various general indicators are used. One of the simplest integral indicators of air pollution is the normalized (dimensionless) concentration of impurities (q), averaged over the entire city and over all periods of observation:

where q i - average daily concentration on i-that point, q sz.sez.. - average seasonal concentration at the same point, N is the number of stationary points (PNS) in the city.

Normalization to the average seasonal concentration eliminates the influence of changes in the total concentration from year to year, which makes it possible to use it to analyze a number of observations over several years.

To characterize air pollution in the city as a whole, the background pollution parameter is used as a general indicator on the recommendation of the State Geographical Observatory

Р = m/n,

Where n- the total number of observations of the concentration of impurities in the city during one day at all stationary points, m- quantity observations during the same day with an increased concentration q, which exceeds the seasonal average value qav.sez by more than 1.5 times (q>1.5 qav.s.)

Based on observational materials for previous years, qaverage season for winter, spring, summer and autumn is calculated for each stationary post separately for each year.

When calculating the parameter R In order to use it as a characteristic of background air pollution, it is necessary that the number of stationary posts in the city be at least three, and the number of observations of the concentration of impurities at all points during the day is at least 20.

Parameter R is calculated for each day for individual impurities and for all impurities together. For many cities the parameter R can be calculated based on several impurities (dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide). It is only necessary to exclude those specific impurities that are measured at individual oil refineries. Parameter R can vary from 1 (all measured concentrations exceed 1.5 qav.sec) to zero (none of the concentrations exceed 1.5 qav.sec).

There are three levels of air pollution in the city:

High (Group I) - R>0,35;

Increased (II group) - 0.20<R?0,35

Reduced (III group) - R?0,20.

In case of low repeatability of values R>0.35 is considered a high level R>0.30 or R>0.25, and for a reduced one - R?0.15 or R?0,10.

Options q And P are relative characteristics and do not depend on the average level of air pollution. Consequently, their values ​​are mainly determined by meteorological conditions.

Currently, to characterize air quality in cities and identify substances that make the greatest contribution to air pollution, as well as for a comparative assessment of air pollution in individual areas or cities, it is customary to use the standard index (SI) and the comprehensive air pollution index (CIPA).

SI is the highest concentration of a substance measured over a short period (20 minutes), divided by the maximum single maximum permissible concentration (MPC m.r.). With SI< 1 загрязнение воздуха не оказывает заметного влияния на здоровье человека и environment. When SI > 10, air pollution is characterized as high.

The comprehensive air pollution index (CIPA) allows you to identify how many times the total level of air pollution by several impurities exceeds the permissible value. For this, pollution levels various substances result in a level of pollution from one substance (usually sulfur dioxide). This reduction is carried out using the exponent C i . Air pollution index for uh of that substance (IZA) is calculated using formula (1):

where q Wedi - average concentration of a particular impurity for a month, season, year, MPCc.c.i - average daily maximum permissible concentration of the same impurity.

For substances of various hazard classes, following values Ci

To reduce the degree of pollution by all substances to pollution with a substance of the third hazard class (sulfur dioxide), we can write the KIZ formula (2), taking into account n substances:

Thus, KIZA is the sum of average concentrations q for a month, season, year divided by MPCs.c.i Wedi usually five substances, reduced to the concentration of sulfur dioxide in fractions of the maximum permissible concentration. In accordance with existing methods assessment, the level of pollution is considered low if the CIZA is below 5, increased if the CIZA is from 5 to 6, high if the CIZA is from 7 to 13, and very high if the CIZA is equal to or greater than 14.

The degree of air pollution in the city as a whole is associated with the inertial factor. Air pollution in the city R depends on its value on the previous day R?. If on the previous day the parameter value R(or another general indicator of air pollution in the city) is high, then air pollution on the current day is usually increased. The opposite situation occurs when the value of the city-wide pollution indicator on the previous day is small ( R?<0,1). В этом случае в последующие дни загрязнение воздуха чаще всего понижено, в том числе и в такой неблагоприятной ситуации, как застой воздуха. Коэффициент корреляции между значениями параметра R on neighboring days it is 0.6-0.7.

2.2 Brief description of the city of Balakovo

The city of Balakovo - a large industrial center of the Saratov region - is located on the left bank of the Volga, on the border of the Middle and Lower Volga regions, 181 km from Saratov, 260 km from Samara. The permanent population as of January 1, 2009 is 198.00 thousand people.

The city is divided into three parts: island, canal and central. Business Balakovo is represented by two dozen enterprises in the chemical, mechanical engineering, energy, construction and food industries.

The city's coat of arms depicts a symbolized boat with a sheaf of wheat sailing along the Volga. The Volga region is a grain region. And the modern symbols of the city are the chemical retor, the construction trowel and the peaceful atom. Balakovo is a city of chemists, energy workers, and builders.

The geographic proximity of Balakov to a number of large regional centers ensures stable economic ties between the city and neighboring regions and contributes to the expansion of the range of industry markets.

The city is located on the Sennaya-Volsk-Pugachev railway line, connected to cities and nearby settlements by road routes.

The favorable geographical position of Balakovo at the intersection of the main railway with the main river of the European part predetermined the location of a large river port in the city. The duration of navigation is 7-8 months. The water area is 31.9 thousand hectares.

The climate of Balakovo is moderate continental and arid. A characteristic feature of the climate is the predominance of clear and partly cloudy days throughout the year, moderately cold and little snow winters, a short dry spring, and hot, dry summers. Recently, the climate has tended to warm up in winter. The number of frost-free days in Balakovo reaches 150-160 per year, which is due to the proximity of the wide water surface of the Volga. The amount of precipitation is uneven, ranging from 50 to 230% of normal throughout the year, with an average annual fall of 340 to 570 mm.

The region is characterized by a fairly wide variety of landscapes. The main source of domestic drinking and industrial water supply in the city of Balakovo is the waters of the Volga River.

Industry of the city: Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant, Saratov Hydroelectric Power Station, Balakovo CHPP-4, Balakovo Passenger Automobile Plant OJSC, Argon Plant (carbon fiber production), Balakovorezinotekhnika, Balakovo Mineral Fertilizers LLC, Volzhsky Diesel named after. Maminykh (Former Volgodizelmash and the Dzerzhinsky plant in the USSR), Shipyard, ZEMK GEM, Khimform CJSC, Balakovo Mortar and Concrete Plant OJSC (BRBZ OJSC).

2.3 Analysis of the results of a study of atmospheric air pollution in the city.Balakovo in the autumn season2006

The material for analyzing air pollution in the city of Balakovo was data from three points located in different areas of the city (Appendix).

PNZ-01 is located at the intersection of Titov and Lenin streets near the banks of the Volga. The Saratov hydroelectric power station and Khimform CJSC are located nearby. PNZ-04 is located at the intersection of Trnavskaya and Rose Boulevard streets and characterizes the state of atmospheric air near streets with heavy vehicle traffic, Balakovo Mineral Fertilizers LLC and Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant. PNZ-05 is located at the intersection of Vokzalnaya and Saratovskoe highways near the railway tracks. Also nearby are Balakovo CHPP-4, the Argon Plant (carbon fiber production), and Balakovorezinotekhnika OJSC.

Observations of air pollution are carried out according to an incomplete program at 07, 13, 19 hours local time for the main impurities: dust, carbon monoxide and sulfur and nitrogen dioxides. In addition, at all points samples are taken for specific harmful impurities: at PNZ-01 - nitrogen oxide, hydrogen sulfide; at PNZ-04 - carbon disulfide, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, formaldehyde; at PNZ-05 - hydrogen sulfide, phenol, ammonia, formaldehyde. To analyze air pollution, pollutant concentrations in mg/m3 measured at individual oil refineries were used.

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Introduction

Today in the world there are a large number of environmental problems, ranging from the extinction of some species of plants and animals to the threat of degeneration of the human race. Currently, there are many theories in the world in which the search for the most optimal ways to solve them is of particular importance. But, unfortunately, everything is much simpler on paper than in real life.

Also, in most countries, the environmental problem comes first, but, alas, not in our country, at least before, but recently they are beginning to pay more attention to it, and new measures are being applied.

The problem of air and water pollution with hazardous industrial waste, human waste products, toxic chemicals and radioactive substances has become decisive. To prevent these effects, joint efforts of biologists, chemists, technicians, doctors, sociologists and other specialists are needed. This is an international problem because air has no national borders.

The atmosphere in our life is of great importance. This includes retaining the Earth’s warmth and protecting living organisms from harmful doses of cosmic radiation. It is also a source of oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, energy, promotes the movement of soda vapor and small materials on the planet - and this is not the whole list of the meanings of air in natural processes. Despite the fact that the area of ​​the atmosphere is huge, it is subject to serious impacts, which in turn cause changes in its composition not only in individual areas, but throughout the entire planet.

A huge amount of O2 is consumed in cases where fires occur in peat bogs, forests, and coal deposits. It has been revealed that in most highly developed countries, people spend another 10-16% more oxygen for economic needs than what is produced as a result of plant photosynthesis. This is why O2 deficiency occurs in large cities. In addition, as a result of the intensive work of industrial enterprises and transport, a huge amount of dust-like and gas-like waste is released into the air.

The purpose of the course work is to assess the degree of air pollution and identify measures to reduce it.

To achieve these goals, the following tasks have been set:

studying criteria for assessing the degree of air pollution in cities;

identifying sources of air pollution;

assessment of the state of atmospheric air in Russia for 2012;

implementation of measures to reduce the level of air pollution.

The urgency of the problem of air pollution in the modern world is increasing. The atmosphere is the most important life-supporting natural environment, which is a mixture of gases and aerosols in the ground layer of the atmosphere, which was formed as a result of the evolution of the earth, human activity and residential, industrial and other facilities located outside. The results of environmental studies, both Russian and foreign, show that ground air pollution is the most powerful, continuously acting factor on humans, the food chain and the environment. The air basin has unlimited space and plays the role of the most mobile, chemically aggressive and pervasive agent of interaction near the surface of the components of the biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Chapter 1. Assessing the level of air pollution

1 Criteria and indicators for assessing the state of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is one of the elements of the environment that is constantly exposed to human activity. The consequences of this impact depend on various factors and are manifested in changes in climate and chemical composition of the atmosphere. These changes significantly affect the biotic components of the environment, including humans.

The air environment can be assessed in two aspects:

Climate and its changes under the influence of natural causes and anthropogenic influences in general (macroclimate) and this project in particular (microclimate). These assessments assume a forecast of the potential impact of climate change on the implementation of the projected type of anthropogenic activity.

Air pollution. To begin with, the possibility of air pollution is assessed using one of the complex indicators, such as: air pollution potential (APP), atmospheric dispersive ability (ASC) and others. After this, an assessment is made of the existing level of air pollution in the required region.

Conclusions about climatic and meteorological characteristics, and about the source of pollution are made, first of all, on the basis of data from the regional Roshydromet, then on the basis of data from the sanitary-epidemiological service and special analytical inspections of the State Committee for Ecology, and are also based on various literary sources.

As a result, based on the obtained estimates and data on specific emissions into the atmosphere of the projected facility, air pollution forecast calculations are made, and special computer programs are used ("ecologist", "guarantor", "ether", etc.), allowing not only to assess possible levels of air pollution, but also to obtain a map diagram of concentration fields and data on the deposition of pollutants (pollutants) on the underlying surface.

The criterion for assessing the degree of atmospheric air pollution includes maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of pollutants. Measured and calculated concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere can be compared with MPC values ​​and, therefore, atmospheric pollution is measured in MPC values.

At the same time, it is worth paying attention to the fact that the concentrations of pollutants in the air should not be confused with their emissions. Concentration is the mass of a substance per unit volume (or mass), and release is the weight of a substance delivered per unit of time (i.e., the “dose”). An emission cannot be a criterion for air pollution, but since air pollution depends not only on the mass of emissions, but also on other factors (meteorological parameters, height of the emission source, etc.).

Air pollution forecasts are used in other sections of the EIA to predict the influence of other factors from the impact of a polluted environment (pollution of the underlying surface, vegetation vegetation, population morbidity, etc.).

When carrying out an environmental assessment, the assessment of the state of the air basin is based on a comprehensive assessment of atmospheric air pollution in the study area, and a system of direct, indirect and indicator criteria is used. Air quality assessment (primarily the degree of pollution) is quite well developed and is based on a huge number of legislative and policy documents that use direct control methods to measure environmental parameters, as well as indirect calculation methods and assessment criteria.

Direct evaluation criteria. The main criteria for the state of atmospheric air pollution include the values ​​of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC). It should be noted that the atmosphere is also a medium for the transfer of technogenic pollutants, and it is also the most changeable and dynamic of all its abiotic components. Based on this, to assess the degree of atmospheric air pollution, time-differentiated assessment indicators are used, such as: maximum one-time MPCmr (short-term effects), average daily MPCs and average annual MPCg (for longer-term exposure).

The degree of air pollution can be assessed using the repetition and frequency of exceeding the MPC, taking into account the hazard class, as well as by summing up the biological effects of pollution (POI). The level of atmospheric pollution by substances of various hazard classes is determined by “reducing” their concentrations, normalized by MPC, to the concentrations of substances of the 3rd hazard class.

There is a division of air pollutants according to the likelihood of their adverse effects on human health, which includes 4 classes:

) first class - extremely dangerous.

) second class - highly dangerous;

) third class - - moderately dangerous;

) fourth class - slightly dangerous.

Basically, actual maximum one-time, average daily and average annual MPCs are used in comparison with the actual concentrations of pollutants in the air over the past few years, but not less than 2 years.

Also important criteria for assessing total air pollution include the value of the complex indicator (P), equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the concentration of substances of various hazard classes, normalized by MPC, reduced to the concentration of a substance of the third hazard class.

The most common and informative indicator of air pollution is the KIZA indicator (comprehensive index of average annual air pollution). Distribution by classes of atmospheric conditions occurs in accordance with the classification of pollution levels on a four-point scale:

“normal” class - means that the level of air pollution is below the average for cities in the country;

"risk" class - equal to the average level;

"crisis" class - above average;

class "disaster" - much higher than average.

Basically, KIZA is used for a comparative analysis of air pollution in different parts of the study area (cities, regions, etc.), as well as for assessing the time trend regarding the state of air pollution.

The resource potential of the air basin of a certain territory is calculated based on its ability to disperse and remove impurities and the ratio of the actual level of pollution and the MPC value. The assessment of air dispersion capacity is determined based on the following indicators: air pollution potential (APP) and air consumption parameter (AC). These characteristics reveal the peculiarities of the formation of pollution levels depending on weather conditions, which contribute to the accumulation and removal of impurities from the air.

Atmospheric pollution potential (APP) is a complex characteristic of meteorological conditions that turn out to be unfavorable for the dispersion of pollutants in the air. Currently in Russia there are 5 classes of PZA, which are typical for urban conditions, based on the frequency of surface inversions, stagnation of weak winds and the duration of fog.

The air consumption parameter (AC) is understood as the volume of clean air that is necessary to dilute emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere to the level of average permissible concentration. This parameter is of particular importance when managing air quality if the user of natural resources has established a regime of collective responsibility (the “bubble” principle) in market conditions. Based on this parameter, the volume of emissions is established for the entire region, and only after that, enterprises located on its territory jointly identify the optimal option for providing the required volume, including through trading in pollution rights.

It is accepted that air can be considered as the initial link in the chain of pollution of the environment and objects. Often, soils and surface waters are indirect indicators of its pollution, and in some cases, on the contrary, they can be sources of secondary air pollution. Hence the need arises not only for assessing air pollution, but also for monitoring the possible consequences of the mutual influence of the atmosphere and adjacent environments, as well as obtaining an integral (mixed) assessment of the state of the air basin.

Indirect indicators for assessing air pollution include the intensity of the arrival of atmospheric impurities as a result of dry deposition on the soil cover and water bodies, as well as as a result of its leaching by precipitation. The criterion for this assessment is the value of permissible and critical loads, which are expressed in units of fallout density, taking into account the time interval (duration) of their arrival.

The result of a comprehensive assessment of the state of air pollution is an analysis of the development of technogenic processes and an assessment of possible negative consequences in the short and long term at the local and regional levels. When analyzing the spatial characteristics and temporal dynamics of the effects of air pollution on human health and the state of the ecosystem, it is necessary to rely on the mapping method, using sets of cartographic materials that characterize the natural conditions of the region, including protected areas.

The optimal system of components of an integral (comprehensive) assessment includes:

assessment of the level of pollution from a sanitary and hygienic point of view (MPC);

assessment of the resource potential of the atmosphere (RZA and PV);

assessment of the degree of influence on certain environments (soil, vegetation and snow cover, water);

the tendency and intensity of the processes of anthropogenic development of a given natural and technical system to identify short-term and long-term effects of impact;

determination of the spatial and temporal scales of possible negative consequences of anthropogenic impact.

1.2 Types of air pollution sources

Based on the nature of the pollutant, there are 3 types of air pollution:

physical - mechanical (dust, solid particles), radioactive (radioactive radiation and isotopes, electromagnetic (various types of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves), noise (various loud sounds and low-frequency vibrations) and thermal pollution, such as emissions of warm air and etc.;

chemical - pollution with gaseous substances and aerosols. Currently, the main chemical pollutants of the atmosphere are carbon monoxide (IV), nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr), ammonia, atmospheric dust and radioactive isotopes;

biological pollution - as a rule, pollution of a microbial nature, such as air pollution with vegetative forms and spores of bacteria and fungi, viruses, etc. .

Natural sources of pollution are volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, dust of cosmic origin, sea salt particles, products of plant, animal and microbial origin. The degree of this pollution is considered as a background, little changed over a certain period of time.

Volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth is, perhaps, the most important natural process of pollution of the surface air basin. Often, large-scale volcanic eruptions lead to massive and prolonged air pollution. This can be learned from the chronicle and modern observational data (for example, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991). This is due to the fact that a huge amount of gases are instantly released into the high layers of the atmosphere. At the same time, at high altitudes they are picked up by air currents moving at high speed and quickly spread throughout the world. The duration of air pollution after large-scale volcanic eruptions can reach several years.

As a result of human economic activity, anthropogenic sources of environmental pollution are identified. They include:

Combustion of fossil fuels, accompanied by the release of 5 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually. As a result, it turns out that over 100 years the CO2 content increased by 18% (from 0.027 to 0.032%). The frequency of these emissions has increased significantly over the past three decades.

The operation of thermal power plants, as a result of which, when burning high-sulfur coals, sulfur dioxide and fuel oil are released, which leads to the appearance of acid rain.

Exhausts from modern turbojet aircraft contain nitrogen oxides and gaseous fluorocarbons from aerosols, leading to depletion of the ozone layer of the atmosphere.

Pollution with suspended particles (during grinding, packaging and loading, from the operation of boiler houses, power plants, mines).

Emissions of various gases by enterprises.

Emissions of harmful substances from processed gases simultaneously with the products of normal oxidation of hydrocarbons (carbon dioxide and water). Exhaust gases in turn include:

unburnt hydrocarbons (soot);

carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide);

oxidation products of impurities contained in fuel;

nitrogen oxides;

particulate matter;

sulfuric and carbonic acids formed by condensation of water vapor;

anti-knock and anti-knock additives and their destruction products;

radioactive emissions;

Combustion of fuel in flare furnaces. As a result, carbon monoxide is produced - one of the most common pollutants.

The combustion of fuel in boilers and vehicle engines, which is accompanied by the formation of nitrogen oxides, which causes smog. Exhaust gases mean the working fluid spent in the engine. They are products of oxidation and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Emissions of exhaust gases are the main reason for exceeding permissible concentrations of toxic substances and carcinogens in the air of large cities and the formation of smog, which in turn often leads to poisoning in confined spaces.

The amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by cars is the mass of gas emissions and the composition of the exhaust gases.

Nitrogen oxides, which are approximately 10 times more dangerous than carbon monoxide, are highly dangerous. The share of aldehyde toxicity is low, accounting for approximately 4-5% of the total toxicity of exhaust gases. The toxicity of different hydrocarbons varies significantly. Unsaturated hydrocarbons in the presence of nitrogen dioxide are photochemically oxidized and form toxic oxygen-containing compounds, i.e. smog.

The quality of afterburning on modern catalysts is such that the share of CO after the catalyst is usually less than 0.1%.

2-benzanthracene

2,6,7-dibenzanthracene

10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene

In addition, when using sulfur-containing gasoline, the exhaust gases may contain sulfur oxides; when using leaded gasoline, lead (tetraethyl lead), bromine, chlorine, and their compounds. It is believed that aerosols of lead halide compounds can undergo catalytic and photochemical transformations, also forming smog.

With prolonged contact with an environment poisoned by car exhaust gases, a general weakening of the body - immunodeficiency - can occur. Also, gases themselves can cause various diseases, such as respiratory failure, sinusitis, laryngotracheitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, and lung cancer. At the same time, exhaust gases cause atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels. Various disorders of the cardiovascular system can also occur indirectly through pulmonary pathology.

The main pollutants include:

) Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas, also known as carbon monoxide. It is formed during the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) with a lack of oxygen and low temperature. By the way, 65% of all emissions come from transport, 21% from small consumers and the household sector, and 14% from industry. When inhaled, carbon monoxide, due to the double bond present in its molecule, forms strong complex compounds with hemoglobin in human blood and thereby blocks the flow of oxygen into the blood.

) Carbon dioxide (CO2) - or carbon dioxide - is a colorless gas with a sour odor and taste, and is a product of complete oxidation of carbon. Considered one of the greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is non-toxic but does not support respiration. A high concentration in the air causes suffocation, as does a lack of carbon dioxide.

) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) (sulfur dioxide, sulfur dioxide) is a colorless gas with a pungent odor. It is formed during the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels, usually coal, as well as during the processing of sulfur ores. It is involved in the formation of acid rain. Global SO2 emissions are estimated at 190 million tons annually. Prolonged exposure to sulfur dioxide in humans can lead first to loss of taste, difficulty breathing, and then to inflammation or swelling of the lungs, interruptions in cardiac activity, impaired circulation and respiratory arrest.

) Nitrogen oxides (nitrogen oxide and dioxide) are gaseous substances: nitrogen monoxide NO and nitrogen dioxide NO2 are combined by one general formula NOx. During all combustion processes, nitrogen oxides are formed, and a significant part of them is in the form of oxide. The higher the combustion temperature, the more intense the formation of nitrogen oxides. The next source of nitrogen oxides are enterprises that produce nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, and nitro compounds. The amount of nitrogen oxides that enter the atmosphere is 65 million tons annually. Of the total amount of nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere, transport accounts for 55%, energy - 28%, industrial enterprises - 14%, small consumers and the household sector - 3%.

5) Ozone (O3) is a gas with a characteristic odor, a stronger oxidizing agent than oxygen. It is among the most toxic of all common pollutants. In the lower layers of the atmosphere, ozone is formed as a result of photochemical processes involving nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds.

) Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen. They include thousands of different air pollutants found in unburned liquids, industrial solvents, and more.

) Lead (Pb) is a silver-gray metal that is toxic in all forms. Often used for the production of paints, ammunition, printing alloy, etc. Approximately 60% of global lead production is spent annually on the creation of acid batteries. At the same time, the main sources (about 80%) of air pollution with lead compounds are considered to be exhaust gases from cars using leaded gasoline. When ingested, lead accumulates in the bones, causing them to deteriorate.

) Soot falls into the category of harmful particles for the lungs. This is because particles less than five microns in diameter are not filtered in the upper respiratory tract. Diesel engine smoke, which contains a large amount of soot, is identified as particularly hazardous as its particles are known to cause cancer.

) Aldehydes are also toxic and can accumulate in the body. In addition to the general toxic effect, irritant and neurotoxic effects can be added. The effect depends on the molecular weight: the larger it is, the less irritating the effect, but the stronger the narcotic effect. It should be noted that unsaturated aldehydes are more toxic than saturated ones. Some of them have carcinogenic properties.

) Benzopyrene is considered a more classic chemical carcinogen; it is dangerous to humans even at low concentrations, as it has the property of bioaccumulation. Being chemically relatively stable, benzopyrene can migrate for a long time from one object to another. As a result, most objects and processes in the environment that do not have the ability to synthesize benzopyrene turn out to be secondary sources. Another property that benzopyrene has is its mutagenic effect.

) Industrial dusts, depending on the mechanism of their formation, can be divided into 4 classes:

mechanical dust generated by grinding the product during the technological process;

sublimates that are formed during the process of volumetric condensation of vapors of substances during cooling of gas flowing through a technological apparatus, installation or unit;

fly ash is the non-combustible fuel residues contained in flue gases in suspension and comes from its mineral impurities during combustion;

industrial soot, its composition includes solid, highly dispersed carbon, formed during incomplete combustion or thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons.

) Smog (from the English Smoky fog, - “smoke fog”) is an aerosol that consists of smoke, fog and dust. It is one of the types of air pollution in large-scale cities and industrial centers. Originally, smog meant smoke created by burning large amounts of coal (a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide SO2). In the 1950s, a new type of smog was introduced - photochemical smog, which is the result of mixing in the atmosphere such pollutants as: :

nitric oxide, such as nitrogen dioxide (products of combustion of fossil fuels);

tropospheric (ground-level) ozone;

volatile organic substances (vapors from gasoline, paints, solvents, pesticides and other chemicals);

nitrate peroxide.

The main air pollutants in residential areas are dust and tobacco smoke, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, radon and heavy metals, insecticides, deodorants, synthetic detergents, drug aerosols, microbes and bacteria.

air pollution atmosphere man-made

Chapter 2. Measures to improve the quality and protection of atmospheric air

1 State of atmospheric air in Russia for 2012

The atmosphere is a huge air system. The lower layer (troposphere) is 8 km thick in polar and 18 km in equatorial latitudes (80% air), the upper layer (stratosphere) is up to 55 km thick (20% air). The atmosphere is characterized by gas chemical composition, humidity, suspended matter composition, and temperature. Under normal conditions, the chemical composition of air (by volume) is as follows: nitrogen - 78.08%; oxygen - 20.95%; carbon dioxide - 0.03%; argon - 0.93%; neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen - 0.002%; ozone, methane, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide - ten thousandths of a percent.

The total amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere is 1.5 to the 10th power.

The essence of air in the Earth's ecosystems is, first of all, to provide humans, flora and fauna with vital gas elements (oxygen, carbon dioxide), as well as to protect the Earth from meteorite impacts, cosmic radiation and solar radiation.

During its existence, the airspace was influenced by the following changes:

irrevocable withdrawal of gas elements;

temporary withdrawal of gas elements;

contamination with gas impurities that destroy its composition and structure;

suspended solids pollution;

heating;

replenishment with gas elements;

self-cleaning.

Oxygen is the most important part of the atmosphere for humanity. With a lack of oxygen in the human body, compensatory phenomena develop, such as rapid breathing, accelerated blood flow, etc. Over the 60 years of people’s lives in the city, 200 grams of harmful chemicals, 16 grams of dust, 0.1 grams of metals pass through their lungs. Among the most dangerous substances, the carcinogen benzopyrene (a product of thermal decomposition of raw materials and fuel combustion), formaldehyde and phenol should be noted.

In the process of burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, wood), intensive consumption of oxygen occurs and the air is polluted with carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, and suspended solids. On earth, 10 billion tons of equivalent fuel are burned every year; along with organized ones, unorganized combustion processes occur: fires in everyday life, in the forest, in coal warehouses, ignition of natural gas outlets, fires in oil fields, as well as during fuel transportation. For all types of fuel combustion, for the production of metallurgical and chemical products, for additional oxidation of various wastes, from 10 to 20 billion tons of oxygen are spent every year. The increase in oxygen consumption as a result of human economic activity is no less than 10 - 16% of annual biogenic formations.

Road transport, in order to ensure the combustion process in engines, consumes atmospheric oxygen, polluting it with carbon dioxide, dust, suspended products of gasoline combustion, such as lead, sulfur dioxide, etc.). Road transport accounts for about 13% of all air pollution. To reduce these pollutants, they improve the vehicle fuel system and use electric engines running on natural gas, hydrogen or low-sulfur gasoline, reduce the use of leaded gasoline, and use catalysts and filters for exhaust gases.

According to Roshydromet, which monitors air pollution, in 2012 in 207 cities of the country with a population of 64.5 million people, the average annual concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air exceeded the MPC (in 2011 - 202 cities).

In 48 cities with a population of more than 23 million people, maximum single concentrations of various harmful substances were recorded, which amounted to more than 10 MPCs (in 2011 - in 40 cities).

In 115 cities with a population of almost 50 million people, the air pollution index (API) exceeded 7. This means that the level of air pollution is very high (98 cities in 2011). The priority list of cities with the highest level of air pollution in Russia (with an air pollution index equal to or greater than 14) in 2012 included 31 cities with a population of more than 15 million people (in 2011 - cities).

In 2012, compared to the previous year, for all indicators of air pollution, the number of cities increased, and, consequently, the population, which is subject to not only high, but also increasing influence of pollutants in the air.

These changes are being made not only due to the increase in industrial emissions with increasing industrial production, but also due to the increase in automobile transport in cities, the burning of large amounts of fuel for thermal power plants, traffic congestion and continuous idling of the engine when there is no money in the car to neutralize exhaust gases. Recently, in most cities there has been a significant reduction in environmentally friendly public transport - trams and trolleybuses - due to an increase in the fleet of minibuses.

In 2012, the list of cities with the highest levels of air pollution was replenished with 10 cities - centers of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil and refining industries. The state of the atmosphere in cities in federal districts can be characterized as follows.

In the Central Federal District, in 35 cities, the average annual concentrations of harmful substances exceeded 1 MPC. In 16 cities with a population of 8,433 thousand people, the level of pollution was very high (IPA had a value equal to or greater than 7). In the cities of Kursk, Lipetsk and the southern part of Moscow, this indicator turned out to be overestimated (IZA? 14), and therefore this list was included in the number of cities with high levels of air pollution.

In the Northwestern Federal District, in 24 cities the average annual concentrations of harmful impurities exceeded 1 MAC, and in four cities their maximum one-time concentrations were more than 10 MAC. In 9 cities with a population of 7,181 thousand people, the level of pollution was high, and in Cherepovets it was very high.

In the Southern Federal District, in 19 cities the average annual concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air exceeded 1 MAC, and in four cities their maximum one-time concentrations were more than 10 MAC. There were high levels of air pollution in 19 cities with a population of 5,388 thousand people. Very high levels of air pollution were noted in Azov, Volgodonsk, Krasnodar and Rostov-on-Don, and therefore they are classified among the cities with the most polluted air.

In the Volga Federal District in 2012, the average annual concentrations of harmful impurities in the atmospheric air exceeded 1 MAC in 41 cities. The maximum one-time concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air were more than 10 MPCs in 9 cities. The level of air pollution was high in 27 cities with a population of 11,801 thousand people, very high in the city of Ufa (classified as one of the cities with the highest levels of air pollution).

In the Ural Federal District, the average annual concentrations of harmful impurities in the atmospheric air exceeded 1 MPC in 18 cities. The maximum one-time concentrations were more than 10 MPCs in 6 cities. There were high levels of air pollution in 13 cities with a population of 4,758 thousand people, and Yekaterinburg, Magnitogorsk, Kurgan and Tyumen were included in the list of cities with the highest levels of air pollution.

In the Siberian Federal District, in 47 cities the average annual concentrations of harmful impurities in the atmospheric air exceeded 1 MAC, and in 16 cities the maximum one-time concentrations were more than 10 MAC. High levels of air pollution were noted in 28 cities with a population of 9,409 people, and very high levels in the cities of Bratsk, Biysk, Zima, Irkutsk, Kemerovo, Krasnoyarsk, Novokuznetsk, Omsk, Selenginsk, Ulan-Ude, Usolye-Sibirskoye, Chita and Shelekhov. Thus, in 2012, the Siberian Federal District was the leader both in the number of cities in which the average annual MPC standards were exceeded, and in the number of cities with the highest level of air pollution.

In the Far Eastern Federal District, the average annual concentrations of harmful impurities exceeded 1 MPC in 23 cities, the maximum one-time concentrations were more than 10 MPC in 9 cities. High levels of air pollution were noted in 11 cities with a population of 2,311 thousand people. The cities of Magadan, Tynda, Ussuriysk, Khabarovsk and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk are classified as cities with the highest levels of air pollution.

In conditions of increasing industrial production volumes, mainly on morally and physically obsolete equipment in basic sectors of the economy, as well as a steadily growing number of cars, we should expect a further deterioration in the quality of atmospheric air in the cities and industrial centers of the country.

According to the joint program for monitoring and assessing the long-range transport of air pollutants in Europe, presented in 2012, in the European territory of Russia (ER), the total deposition of oxidized sulfur and nitrogen amounted to 2,038.2 thousand tons, 62.2% this amount is transboundary fallout. The total ammonia fallout in the EPR amounted to 694.5 thousand tons, of which 45.6% was transboundary fallout.

The total lead fallout in the EPR amounted to 4,194 tons, including 2,612 tons, or 62.3%, of transboundary fallout. 134.9 tons of cadmium fell in the EPR, of which 94.8 tons, or 70.2%, were the result of transboundary inputs. Mercury fallout amounted to 71.2 tons, of which 67.19 tons, or 94.4%, were transboundary releases. A significant share of the contribution to transboundary mercury pollution in Russia (almost 89%) comes from natural and anthropogenic sources located outside the European region.

Benzopyrene fallout exceeded 21 tons, of which 16 tons, or more than 75.5%, were transboundary fallouts.

Despite the measures taken to reduce emissions of harmful substances by the Parties to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979), transboundary fallout of oxidized sulfur and nitrogen, lead, cadmium, mercury and benzopyrene in the European Region exceeds fallout from Russian sources.

The state of the Earth's ozone layer over the territory of the Russian Federation in 2012 turned out to be stable and very close to normal, which is quite remarkable against the backdrop of a strong decrease in the total ozone content observed in previous years.

Data from Roshydromet showed that, to date, ozone-depleting substances (chlorofluorocarbons) have not played a decisive role in the observed interannual variability in total ozone content, which occurs under the influence of natural factors.

2 Measures to reduce air pollution levels

The Law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” comprehensively addresses this problem. He grouped requirements developed in previous years and tested in practice. For example, the introduction of a rule prohibiting the commissioning of any production facilities (newly created or reconstructed) if during operation they become sources of pollution or other negative impacts on the atmospheric air.

Rules regarding the regulation of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants in the airspace were further developed.

State sanitary legislation for the atmosphere has developed and established maximum permissible concentrations for a large number of chemicals, both in isolated action and for their combinations.

Hygienic standards are a state requirement for business managers. Compliance with these standards is monitored by the state sanitary supervision authorities of the Ministry of Health and the State Committee on Ecology.

Of great importance for the sanitary protection of the atmosphere is the identification of new sources of air pollution, accounting of designed, constructed and reconstructed facilities that pollute the atmosphere, control over the development and implementation of master plans for cities, towns and industrial hubs regarding the location of industrial enterprises and sanitary protection zones.

The Law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” establishes requirements for establishing standards for maximum permissible emissions of pollutants into the airspace. These standards must be established for each stationary source of pollution, for each individual model of transport and other mobile vehicles and installations. They are determined in such a way that the totality of emissions from all sources of pollution in a certain area does not exceed the maximum permissible values ​​of pollutants in the atmosphere. Maximum permissible emissions are set taking into account maximum permissible concentrations.

The requirements of the Law regarding the use of plant protection products are important. All legislative measures represent a system of preventive measures aimed at preventing air pollution.

There are also architectural and planning measures aimed at building enterprises, planning urban developments taking into account environmental considerations, greening cities, etc. During construction, it is necessary to adhere to the rules established by law and prevent the construction of hazardous industries in urban areas. It is important to organize mass greening of cities, because green spaces absorb many harmful substances from the air and help cleanse the atmosphere.

As can be seen from practice, at present in Russia green spaces are only decreasing in quantity. Not to mention the fact that numerous “dormitory areas” built in their time do not stand up to criticism. This is due to the fact that the built-up houses are too close to each other, and the air between them is susceptible to stagnation.

The problem of rational location of the road network in cities, as well as the quality of the roads themselves, is also acute. It is no secret that the roads built in their time are definitely not suitable for the modern number of cars. To solve this problem, it is necessary to build a bypass road. This will help relieve the city center from transit heavy vehicles. Also necessary is a major reconstruction (not cosmetic repairs) of the road surface, construction of modern transport interchanges, straightening of roads, installation of sound barriers and roadside landscaping. Fortunately, despite the financial difficulties, this situation has now changed significantly, and for the better.

It is also necessary to ensure quick and clear monitoring of the air condition through a network of permanent and mobile monitoring stations. It is necessary to ensure at least minimal quality control of emissions from vehicles through special testing. It is necessary to reduce the combustion processes of various landfills, because in this case, a huge amount of harmful substances is released simultaneously with smoke.

At the same time, the Law provides not only for monitoring the implementation of its requirements, but also for liability for their violation. A special article defines the role of public organizations and citizens in the implementation of measures to protect the air environment, requiring them to actively assist government authorities in these matters, since only general public participation will help in implementing the provisions of this Law.

Enterprises whose production processes are a source of emissions of harmful and unpleasant-smelling substances into the atmosphere must be separated from residential buildings by sanitary protection zones. The sanitary protection zone for enterprises and facilities can possibly be increased if necessary and with appropriate justification, but not more than 3 times, depending on the following reasons: a) the effectiveness of the methods provided for or possible for the implementation of methods for purifying emissions into the airspace; b) lack of methods for cleaning emissions; c) placement of residential buildings, if necessary, on the leeward side of the enterprise in the area of ​​possible air pollution; d) wind rose and other unfavorable local conditions; d) construction of new, still insufficiently studied, hazardous industries.

The area of ​​sanitary protection zones for individual groups or complexes of large enterprises in the chemical, oil refining, metallurgical, engineering and other industries, as well as thermal power plants with emissions that create a high concentration of various harmful substances in the atmosphere, and which have a particularly harmful effect on health and sanitary living conditions of the population are established in each individual case by a joint decision of the Ministry of Health and the State Construction Committee of Russia.

To increase the effectiveness of sanitary protection zones, trees and shrubs, as well as herbaceous vegetation, are planted on their territory, which reduce the concentration of industrial dust and gases. In the sanitary protection zones of enterprises that significantly pollute the atmosphere with gases harmful to vegetation, it is necessary to grow the most gas-resistant trees, shrubs and grasses, taking into account the degree of aggressiveness and concentration of industrial emissions. Particularly harmful to vegetation are emissions from the chemical industry (sulfur and sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, etc.), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and the coal industry.

Along with this, another important task is to educate the population about environmental awareness. The lack of basic environmental thinking is especially noticeable in the modern world. While in the West there are programs that help children learn the basics of environmental thinking from childhood, Russia has not yet seen significant progress in this area. Until a generation with a fully formed environmental consciousness appears in Russia, progress in understanding and preventing the environmental consequences of human activity will not be noticeable.

Conclusion

The atmosphere is the main factor determining climate and weather conditions on Earth. Atmospheric resources are of great importance in human economic activity. Air is an integral component of production processes, as well as other types of human economic activity.

Airspace is one of the most important elements of nature, being an integral part of the habitat of humans, plants and animals. These circumstances determine the need for legal regulation of social relations related to the protection of the atmosphere from various harmful chemical, physical and biological influences.

The main function of the air basin is that it is an irreplaceable source of oxygen, which is necessary for the existence of all forms of life on Earth. All functions of the atmosphere that take place in relation to flora and fauna, humans and society act as one of the important conditions for ensuring comprehensive legal regulation of air protection.

The main regulatory legal act is the Federal Law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air”. Based on it, other acts of legislation of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation have been published. They regulate the competence of state and other bodies in the field of atmospheric protection, state accounting of harmful effects on it, control, monitoring, dispute resolution and responsibility in the field of atmospheric air protection.

State administration in the field of atmospheric protection is carried out in accordance with legislation by the Government of the Russian Federation directly or through a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric protection, as well as by state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Bibliography

1. On environmental protection: Federal Law dated January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ (as amended on March 12, 2014) [Electronic resource] // Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. - 03.12.2014.- No. 27-FZ;

On the protection of atmospheric air: Federal Law of 04.05.1999 No. 96-FZ (as amended on 27.12.2009) [Electronic resource] // Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. - 28.12.2009. - No. 52 (1 part);

On the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population: Federal Law of March 30, 1999 No. 52-FZ (as amended on December 30, 2008) [Electronic resource] // Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. - 01/05/2009. - No. 1;

Korobkin V.I. Ecology [Text]: textbook for universities / V.I. Korobkin, L.V. Peredelsky.- Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2011.- 373 p.

Nikolaikin N.I. Ecology [Text]: textbook for universities / N.I. Nikolaikin, N.E. Nikolaikina, O.P. Melekhova.- M.: Bustard, 2013.- 365 p.

Environmental problems: what is happening, who is to blame and what to do? / Ed. IN AND. Danilova-Danilyana. - M.: Publishing house MNEPU, 2010. - 332 p.

Environmental Law: Textbook / Ed. S.A. Bogolyubova.- M.: Welby, 2012.- 400 p.

Environmental Law: Textbook / Ed. O.L. Dubovik.- M.: Eksmo, 2010.- 428 p.

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The level of ground-level concentration of harmful substances in the atmosphere from stationary and mobile industrial and transport facilities with the same mass emission can vary significantly in the atmosphere depending on man-made and natural-climatic factors.

TO man-made factors include:

· intensity and volume of emissions of harmful substances;

· the height of the emission source mouth from the ground surface;

· the size of the territory where pollution occurs;

· level of technogenic development of the region.

TO natural-climatic factors include:

· characteristics of the circulation regime;

· thermal stability of the atmosphere;

· atmospheric pressure, air humidity, temperature;

· temperature inversions, their frequency and duration;

· wind speed, frequency of air stagnation and weak winds (0 – 1 m/s);

· duration of fogs, terrain, geological structure and hydrogeology of the area;

· soil and plant conditions (soil type, water permeability, porosity, soil granulometric composition, soil erosion, state of vegetation, rock composition, age, quality);

· background values ​​of pollution indicators of natural components of the atmosphere, including existing noise levels;

· state of the animal world, including ichthyofauna.

In the natural environment, air temperature, wind speed, strength and direction are constantly changing, so the spread of energy and ingredient pollution occurs under constantly new conditions. The following synoptic situation is unfavorable - an anticyclone with a gradient-free isobar field in intermountain closed basins. The processes of decomposition of toxic substances in high latitudes at low values ​​of solar radiation slow down. Precipitation and high temperatures, on the contrary, contribute to the intensive decomposition of toxic substances.

In Moscow, for example, meteorological conditions unfavorable for air pollution, associated with air stagnation and inversions, are created in the summer, mainly at night with weak northern and eastern winds.

With the general pattern of a decrease in the level of pollution as one moves away from the road, the decrease in noise level occurs due to the dispersion of sound energy in the atmosphere and its absorption by the surface cover. The dispersion of exhaust gases depends on the direction and speed of the wind (Fig. 5.1).

Warmer temperatures near the earth's surface during the day cause air to rise, resulting in additional turbulence.

At night, the temperature at the earth's surface is lower, so turbulence is reduced. This phenomenon is one of the reasons for the better propagation of sound at night compared to daytime. The dispersion of exhaust gases, on the contrary, decreases.

The ability of the earth's surface to absorb or emit heat affects the vertical distribution of temperature in the surface layer of the atmosphere and leads to temperature inversion (deviation from adiabaticity). An increase in air temperature with altitude means that harmful emissions cannot rise above a certain ceiling. Under inversion conditions, turbulent exchange is weakened and conditions for the dispersion of harmful emissions in the surface layer of the atmosphere worsen. For the surface inversion, the repeatability of the heights of the upper boundary is of particular importance; for the elevated inversion, the repeatability of the lower boundary is of particular importance.

The combination of natural factors that determine the possible level of air pollution is characterized by:

· meteorological and climatic potential for air pollution;

height of the mixing layer;

· repeatability of surface and elevated inversions, their power, intensity;

· repeatability of air stagnation, calm layers to various heights.

The drop in concentrations of harmful substances in the atmosphere occurs not only due to the dilution of emissions with air, but also due to the gradual self-purification of the atmosphere. During the process of self-purification of the atmosphere, the following occurs:

1) sedimentation, i.e. fallout of emissions with low reactivity (particulate matter, aerosols) under the influence of gravity;

1) neutralization and binding of gaseous emissions in the open atmosphere under the influence of solar radiation or biota components.

A certain potential for self-healing of environmental properties, including cleansing the atmosphere, is associated with the absorption of up to 50% of natural and man-made CO 2 emissions by water surfaces. Other gaseous air pollutants also dissolve in water bodies. The same thing happens on the surface of green spaces: 1 hectare of urban green spaces absorbs within an hour the same amount of CO 2 that 200 people exhale.

Chemical elements and compounds contained in the atmosphere absorb some of the sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon compounds. Putrefactive bacteria contained in the soil decompose organic matter, returning CO 2 to the atmosphere. In Fig. Figure 5.2 shows a diagram of environmental pollution with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contained in emissions from vehicles and transport infrastructure, and its purification from these substances in environmental components.

Atmospheric air pollution is any change in its composition and properties that has a negative impact on human and animal health, the condition of plants and ecosystems. Air pollution is one of the most significant problems of our time

The main pollutants (pollutants) of atmospheric air formed during industrial and other human activities - sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. They account for about 98% of the total emissions of harmful substances. In addition to the main pollutants, more than 70 types of harmful substances are observed in the atmosphere of cities and towns, including - formaldehyde, hydrogen fluoride, lead compounds, ammonia, phenol, benzene, carbon disulfide, etc.. However, it is the concentrations of the main pollutants (sulfur dioxide, etc.) that most often exceed permissible levels.

emission into the atmosphere of the four main pollutants (pollutants) of the atmosphere - emissions in atmosphere of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. In addition to these main pollutants, many other very dangerous toxic substances enter the atmosphere: lead, mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals(emission sources: cars, smelters, etc.); hydrocarbons(CnHm), among them the most dangerous is benzo(a)pyrene, which has a carcinogenic effect (exhaust gases, boiler combustion, etc.), aldehydes, and primarily formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, toxic volatile solvents(gasolines, alcohols, ethers), etc.

The most dangerous air pollution is radioactive. Currently, it is caused mainly by globally distributed long-lived radioactive isotopes - products of nuclear weapons tests conducted in the atmosphere and underground. The surface layer of the atmosphere is also polluted by emissions of radioactive substances into the atmosphere from operating nuclear power plants during their normal operation and other sources.

Another form of air pollution is local excess heat input from anthropogenic sources. A sign of thermal (thermal) pollution of the atmosphere are the so-called thermal zones, for example, “heat islands” in cities, warming of water bodies, etc. P.

13. Environmental consequences of global air pollution.

Greenhouse effect– a rise in temperature on the surface of the planet as a result of thermal energy that appears in the atmosphere due to heating of gases. The main gases that lead to the greenhouse effect on Earth are water vapor and carbon dioxide.

The greenhouse effect allows us to maintain a temperature on the surface of the Earth at which the emergence and development of life is possible. If there were no greenhouse effect, the average surface temperature of the globe would be much lower than it is now. However, as the concentration of greenhouse gases increases, the impermeability of the atmosphere to infrared rays increases, which leads to an increase in the Earth's temperature.

Ozone layer.

There is a layer of ozone in the atmosphere 20 - 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Ozone is a special form of oxygen. Most oxygen molecules in the air consist of two atoms. The ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms. Ozone is formed under the influence of sunlight. When photons of ultraviolet light collide with oxygen molecules, an oxygen atom is split off from them, which, joining another 02 molecule, forms Oz (ozone). The ozone layer of the atmosphere is very thin. If all available atmospheric ozone were to uniformly cover an area of ​​45 square kilometers, the result would be a layer 0.3 centimeters thick. A little ozone penetrates with air currents into the lower layers of the atmosphere. When light rays react with substances contained in exhaust gases and industrial fumes, ozone is also formed.

Acid rain is a consequence of air pollution. The smoke produced by burning coal, oil and gasoline contains gases - sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These gases enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water droplets, forming weak acid solutions, which then fall to the ground as rain. Acid rain causes fish kills and damages forests in North America and Europe. They also spoil crops and even the water we drink.

Plants, animals and buildings are harmed by acid rain. Their impact is especially noticeable near cities and industrial zones. The wind carries clouds with water droplets in which acids are dissolved over long distances, so acid rain can fall thousands of kilometers from where it originally originated. For example, most of the acid rain that falls in Canada is caused by smoke from U.S. factories and power plants. The consequences of acid rain are quite clear, but no one knows exactly the mechanism of their occurrence.

Question 14 The stated principles of the formation and analysis of various forms of environmental environmental risk for public health are embodied in several interrelated stages: 1. Identification of risk for certain types of industrial and agricultural loads, highlighting chemical and physical factors in their structure according to the level of environmental safety and toxicity. 2. Assessment of the real and potential impact of toxic substances on humans in individual territories, taking into account the complex of pollutants and natural factors. Particular importance is attached to the current density of the rural population and the number of urban settlements. 3. Identification of quantitative patterns of response of the human population (different age cohorts) to a certain level of exposure. 4. Environmental risk is considered as one of the most important components of special modules of a geographic information system. In such modules, problematic medical and environmental situations are formed. GIS blocks include information on existing, planned and proposed changes in the structure of territorial production complexes. An information base of such content is necessary to perform appropriate modeling. 5. Characteristics of the risk of the cumulative impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on public health. 6. Identification of spatial combinations of natural and anthropogenic factors, which can contribute to more detailed forecasting and analysis of the possible dynamics of local and area risk combinations at the regional level. 7. Differentiation of territories according to levels and forms of environmental risk and identification of medical and ecological areas according to regional levels of anthropogenic risk. When assessing anthropogenic risk, a complex of priority toxicants and other anthropogenic factors is taken into account.

15question SMOG Smog (English smog, from smoke - smoke and fog - fog), severe air pollution in large cities and industrial centers. Smog can be of the following types: London-type wet smog - a combination of fog with an admixture of smoke and gas waste from production. Alaskan-type ice smog is smog formed at low temperatures from steam from heating systems and household gas emissions. Radiation fog is fog that appears as a result of radiation cooling of the earth's surface and the mass of moist surface air to the dew point. Typically, radiation fog occurs at night in anticyclone conditions with cloudless weather and a light breeze. Radiation fog often occurs under conditions of temperature inversion, which prevents the rise of the air mass. An extreme form of radiation fog, smog, can occur in industrial areas. Dry smog of the Los Angeles type is smog resulting from photochemical reactions that occur in gas emissions under the influence of solar radiation; a persistent bluish haze of corrosive gases without fog. Photochemical smog is smog, the main cause of which is considered to be automobile exhaust. Car exhaust gases and polluting emissions from enterprises in conditions of temperature inversion enter into a chemical reaction with solar radiation, forming ozone. Photochemical smog can cause respiratory tract damage, vomiting, eye irritation and general lethargy. In some cases, photochemical smog may contain nitrogen compounds, which increase the likelihood of cancer. Photochemical smog IN DETAIL: Photochemical fog is a multicomponent mixture of gases and aerosol particles of primary and secondary origin. The main components of smog include ozone, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and numerous organic compounds of peroxide nature, collectively called photooxidants. Photochemical smog occurs as a result of photochemical reactions under certain conditions: the presence in the atmosphere of a high concentration of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other pollutants, intense solar radiation and calmness, or very weak air exchange in the surface layer with a powerful and increased inversion for at least a day. Stable calm weather, usually accompanied by inversions, is necessary to create high concentrations of reactants. Such conditions are created more often in June - September and less often in winter. During prolonged clear weather, solar radiation causes the breakdown of nitrogen dioxide molecules to form nitric oxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen and molecular oxygen give ozone. It would seem that the latter, oxidizing nitric oxide, should again turn into molecular oxygen, and nitric oxide into dioxide. But this doesn't happen. Nitrogen oxide reacts with olefins in exhaust gases, which split at the double bond and form fragments of molecules and excess ozone. As a result of ongoing dissociation, new masses of nitrogen dioxide are broken down and produce additional amounts of ozone. A cyclic reaction occurs, as a result of which ozone gradually accumulates in the atmosphere. This process stops at night. In turn, ozone reacts with olefins. Various peroxides are concentrated in the atmosphere, which together form the oxidants characteristic of photochemical fog. The latter are a source of so-called free radicals, which are particularly reactive. Such smogs are a common occurrence over London, Paris, Los Angeles, New York and other cities in Europe and America. Due to their physiological effects on the human body, they are extremely dangerous for the respiratory and circulatory systems and often cause premature death in urban residents with poor health. Smog is usually observed with weak turbulence (swirling air currents) of air, and therefore, with a stable distribution of air temperature along the height, especially with temperature inversions, with weak wind or calm. Temperature inversions in the atmosphere, an increase in air temperature with height instead of its usual decrease for the troposphere. Temperature inversions occur both at the earth's surface (surface temperature inversions) and in the free atmosphere. Surface temperature inversions most often form on windless nights (in winter, sometimes during the day) as a result of intense radiation of heat by the earth's surface, which leads to cooling of both it and the adjacent layer of air. The thickness of surface temperature inversions is tens - hundreds of meters. The temperature increase in the inversion layer ranges from tenths of a degree to 15-20 °C or more. The most powerful winter surface temperature inversions are in Eastern Siberia and Antarctica. In the troposphere, above the surface layer, temperature inversions are more often formed in an anticyclone

16question In the atmospheric air, the concentrations of substances determined by the priority list of harmful impurities, established in accordance with the “Temporary recommendations for compiling a priority list of harmful impurities to be controlled in the atmosphere”, Leningrad, 1983 were measured. The concentrations of 19 pollutants were measured: the main ones (suspended substances, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide), and specific (formaldehyde, fluoride compounds, benzo(a)pyrene, metals, mercury).

Question 17 There are 7 large rivers in Kazakhstan, the length of each of which exceeds 1000 km. Among them: the Ural River (its upper course is located in Russia), which flows into the Caspian Sea; Syr Darya (its upper reaches are located on the territory of Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) - into the Aral Sea; The Irtysh (its upper reaches are in China; on the territory of Kazakhstan it has large tributaries the Tobol and Ishim) crosses the republic, and already on the territory of Russia it flows into the Ob, which flows into the Arctic Ocean; The Ili River (its upper reaches are located in China) flows into Lake Balkhash. There are many large and small lakes in Kazakhstan. The largest among them are the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, Balkhash, Alakol, Zaysan, Tengiz. Kazakhstan includes most of the northern and half of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. The length of the Caspian Sea coast in Kazakhstan is 2340 km. There are 13 reservoirs in Kazakhstan with a total area of ​​8816 km² and a total water volume of 87.326 km³. Countries around the world are provided with water resources extremely unevenly. The following countries are most endowed with water resources: Brazil (8,233 km3), Russia (4,508 km3), USA (3,051 km3), Canada (2,902 km3), Indonesia (2,838 km3), China (2,830 km3), Colombia (2,132 km3), Peru (1,913 km3), India (1,880 km3), Congo (1,283 km3), Venezuela (1,233 km3), Bangladesh (1,211 km3), Burma (1,046 km3).