The castle, the furnishings and morals of its inhabitants. Feudal castle in medieval Europe
Castle Dwellers
The number of people living in the castle and the relationships between them depended on the functions performed by the castle. We find the least number of inhabitants in “private” castles, which served primarily as the residence of the owner of the castle and his family. Here we meet only a minimum of servants; in extreme cases, the mistress of the castle had to do housework herself, with the support of one maid, while the owner was engaged in management. The difference from the peasant way of life in this case is barely noticeable. Despite all the reports about bankrupt nobles, such cases were rather the exception. Impoverished knights are often found in the time of the Staufens. Most often, castles, including those belonging to ordinary knights, were the center of small estates with estates in several points, which were rarely cultivated independently. Typically, possessions were distributed among a couple of dozen, less often several hundred, serfs, who paid taxes in return and performed work. In this case, the manager, sometimes with his own clerk, monitored the receipt of natural and cash taxes from the peasants and resolved disputes between the serfs. In some castles, the steward and clerk were allocated a separate room, often near the gate, sometimes in the fort or in the household yard. The servants in these cases were more extensive and included, in addition to servants and maids, a permanent cook, a couple of cooks, and possibly also a stoker, blacksmith or saddler. If major construction work was required, then carpenters and masons were hired, who during this period could also be located on the territory of the castle.
Military support for such castles, at least in peacetime, was limited to the bare necessities. So in 1425, both co-owners of Reichelsberg Castle in Lower Franconian Aub entered into an agreement that each of them would provide one armed servant, and pay two gatekeepers (Türmann and Torwart) and two guards together. In the late Middle Ages, the situation was similar in the service castles of large feudal lords. The owner of the castle was most often represented by a manager, assisted by one or two clerks. For administrative needs, one or two rooms were allocated, most often in the palace. In 1366, to protect the castle of Lichtenegg, the owner posted a gatekeeper, two guards, five armed servants with two horses, in addition, the cook had to provide for the needs of the servants and their families. The manager had to pay for other yard servants himself.
A special position was occupied by large imperial castles, erected in the 12th century. 13th century at the key points of the Staufen Empire. For example Nuremberg, Kaiserslautern, Hagenau, Oppenheim. They served as the empire's control centers and military strongholds. But even here, the number of ministerials performing administrative or military functions was modest - even in large imperial castles there were hardly more than 20 of them. Initially, they were obliged to carry out constant service in exchange for fief. At first they were most likely located in the buildings of the core of the castle or forburg. However, due to cramped living conditions, already in the 12th century. they built themselves residential towers outside the castle walls. Thus, real military settlements arose near the castles. The duty of garrison service gradually softened, and over time began to extend only to periods of military danger. And since they often received fiefs from different gentlemen, garrison service became completely impossible.
The situation was completely different in the castles-residences of large aristocratic families, centers of noble knightly culture. Noble families sent their offspring here to raise their offspring, men competed for such honorable positions as kravchiy, chamberlain, steward, served as knights, advisers, servants or managers, and ladies - as chambermaids of princesses.
The large number of courtiers required an appropriate number of both simple servants and specialists: cooks, bakers, butchers, blacksmiths, saddlers, carpenters, masons, not least carvers, artists, jewelers. They can be found here and there in the castles of the low nobility, but here they usually did not have their own workshops.
Light and warmth
It’s nice to look out of the castle window into the distance on a June day, admiring the landscape. But who on a cold, damp November day on dirty, wet roads? The inhabitants of the castle had to spend the cold season there, complaining about the hardships of winter and sighing about spring.
The walls only partially protected from the cold; without heating, they cooled down and absorbed moisture. Those who could afford it lined the walls with boards or hung them with carpets. Small windows let in less cold; large multi-vaulted windows, which are found only in the halls of large castles, were not walled up back in the 13-14th centuries, when the climate became harsher. In place of the big ones window openings small rectangular windows appeared, sometimes arranged in groups. Representative buildings received large windows, divided in half or crosswise, with a minimum top part glazed.
| Lamp. 15th century |
Although glass was already known, even in the castles of the nobility so-called “forest glass” (“Waldglas”) was used for glazing, which could only be processed into milky-cloudy round washers that let in only a minimum of light. Most knights, however, could not afford such glass. Instead, the windows were covered with leather or parchment that barely let in light, most often on wooden frames, or furs. To prevent drafts, the cracks were plugged with straw or moss. This made the already gloomy rooms even darker - endless months in semi-darkness: if anywhere our idea of the gloomy Middle Ages is true, it is here.
Dark rooms could only be provided with dim lighting. The candles we know from stearin and paraffin were invented only in the 19th century. Before that, candles were used from fat obtained from cow kidneys or lamb fat. Candles from beeswax were expensive and only accessible to the owner of the castle if the raw materials were supplied by his own bees. Torches were more effective, but they produced a lot of soot, damaged carpets and furniture, and for this reason alone were used only in special cases.
Cheaper were pine torches and oil lamps - which also produced a lot of soot, burned the already scarce oxygen and spread a strong rancid smell.
Heating
It was not only dark in the castles, but also very cold, and in the rock castles it was also damp.
While the nobility could escape to the heated ground floors, small castles were much more uncomfortable. The stone fireplace in the hall spread heat only a few meters around, and then only while the fire was burning. The place by the fire was reserved for the lord of the castle, his family and honored guests. The remote ends of the hall or rooms without fireplaces or stoves were heated with iron baskets filled with hot coals, which provided only meager heat.
Simple limestone stoves are also found in modest houses, which even the nobility owned until the 11th century. from only two rooms, which, however, was already a big step forward compared to single-space houses. In the kitchen part, most often made of wood, food was cooked over an open fire. The back, stone, side of the stove heated the adjacent room, which thus remained smoke-free.
After the end of the 11th-12th century. chimneys appeared, the kitchen and living quarters were spread over different floors. The fireplace in the hall was often combined with a tiled slab. Tile slabs, the existence of which has been proven since the 12th century, were made from simple clay. They retained and distributed heat better and at the same time were not as fire hazardous. Soon they began to be faced with baked clay tiles, which increased the surface area and better retained heat. Later, the tiles began to be covered with glaze and decorated with various designs.One of the oldest images of a tile is found in the so-called Zurich armorial list (Züricher Wappenrolle) as a decoration of the helmet (!) of the Swiss knight "Stubenwied". The role that the stove played in improving the comfort of life in the castle is reflected in the index of faces of the princely castle of Tyrol. Fornarius, the stoker, and no less than 11 of his assistants top the list.
Interior and furniture
Residential towers from the time of the early Staufens were sparsely furnished, and the furniture itself was simple until the end of the Middle Ages, even in the castles of large feudal lords. At the same time, the design of walls, floors and ceilings was much richer, brighter and more varied.
The entrance to the residential tower was a simple staircase leading to the second or third floor. The walls of the lower floors were either plastered with a thin layer of lime, or the stonework was left exposed. The coolness coming from the walls was welcome here, since here on wooden racks Supplies were stored: fruits and bread, vegetables and herbs in vessels made of baked clay, other food products, and in large wooden vats - a supply of water intended for emergencies. Since the water was of poor quality, wine stored in barrels played a significant role.
Above the storage areas there was a kitchen with a large fireplace, at floor level or slightly raised, with a far protruding fireplace or chimney shell above it. The furnishings were economical - a simple table for cooking, a shelf for pots, plates or food. The floor was covered with a thin fire-resistant layer of clay or lime mortar; in subsequent centuries, the floor was also made of brick or stone slabs.
On the second and sometimes third floor of the residential tower (or palace) there was a living hall, the central point of the castle, dominated by a large wall fireplace. Here the walls were plastered or covered with frescoes. Tapestries served as both decoration and protection from the cold; especially luxurious ones were hung only on holidays.
The owner and members of his family sat next to the fireplace on folding chairs or armchairs. If you follow the descriptions of contemporaries, the tables were brought into the hall only for meal times, and then immediately taken away. They sat on stools or benches (the “chair” was invented only in the 16th century), as well as on folding chairs and stools, and also on chests. There were benches along the walls, or there was one bench that ran along the perimeter.
Above the hall in the residential tower were the sleeping quarters of the master and his seven members, and under the roof were the servants' quarters. To protect against the cold, the walls were lined with massive ones, at first simple boards, but more often with fabric covering. The sleeping area, which was common to all servants until modern times, was unheated.
Valuable clothes and documents were stored in chests, rarely in (wall) closets. Other chests were used to store bedding. If this was possible, the gentlemen used a canopy bed. A canopy made of fabric or wood was supposed to trap harmful insects; the beds were shorter than today, as they slept half-sitting. The servants slept on straw, often next to the horses. The maids are on simple, wooden shared beds.
Sanitation
Sanitation, water supply and personal hygiene were closely linked in castles. Where water had to be obtained with difficulty from wells, taken from tanks or delivered several kilometers away, its economical use was the first commandment. At that time, caring for animals, especially expensive horses, was more important than personal hygiene. Therefore, it is not surprising that townspeople and villagers wrinkled their noses in the presence of castle inhabitants. Back in the 16th century. the chronicle justified the relocation of the nobility from castles with the argument: “So that we have a place to wash.” Since the city baths of that time were not limited to body care, but also included the services of a modern “massage parlor” in their repertoire, it is difficult to say with certainty what the knights were actually looking for.
If we follow medieval novels and epics, then personal hygiene was of high value. Dusty after a long ride, Parzival takes a bath, cared for by bathing maids. Meleganz (in the novel of the same name in the Arthurian cycle, 1160-80) finds the mistress of the castle, who is not at all indignant at this, in a bathing tub, which, by the way, is located in front of the castle under a linden tree. The epic hero Biterolf organizes joint bathing for “86 or more”, and once 500 knights at once - in a tub installed in the hall. In the "Naked Ambassador" shwanka, the protagonist was sent to the bathhouse with his news. Logically assuming that the owner of the castle is washing there, the ambassador undresses naked and enters the room, but finds the entire knightly family there with their maids - also dressed. They retired to warm bath just because of the cold weather. And it’s no joke that in 1045 several people, including the Bishop of Würzburg, died in the bathing tub of Persenbeug Castle after the ceiling of the bathhouse collapsed
In the bathhouse or bathhouse there were not only tubs for washing, but also a steam bath; to produce steam, water was poured onto hot stones.
| Steam bath. 14th century |
Delicate topic. On the plains, already in the early Middle Ages, hygienically progressive toilets were installed in monasteries - running water rivers and streams were used for flushing. But in high castles this method was impossible. In some residential towers, tower-like extensions are found, possibly used as outhouses. Below, at the base of the tower or even below its level, feces collected. If the well or cistern was too close to the cesspool, the water could be contaminated with bacteria. The consequences were infections and diarrhea, pathogenic microbes again entered the water and the circle closed. Real progress occurred during the time of the Staufens: things began to be done simply behind the fortress wall. To do this, the toilets were located on the wall: either the shaft was built into the wall, or the toilet in the form of a bay window protruded from the wall. The feces went either in free fall, or through wooden or stone pipes into the castle moat, sometimes into cesspools.
From the inside, the outhouses were initially open to view, but later they began to be closed with a door, turning them into a “secret room.” But what about in winter, at subzero temperatures? Well, there were also chamber pots, which were initially made of wood, and later of clay.Water supply
As long as the castles or fortified houses of the nobility were located in a long-inhabited valley, water supply from a nearby stream, spring or mine well was not a big problem. The situation changed in the 11th-12th centuries, when castles began to be built on the tops of mountains or inaccessible mountain plateaus. The probability in the narrow area of the castle - and the castle grew in height - of finding a source decreased to zero and was perhaps higher only in castles located on the ledge of a mountain slope - for example, Neideck Castle in Upper Franconia. And a castle without its own water supply in the event of a siege was practically useless
Wells
First of all, the possibility of obtaining water from a well within the castle was considered, which provided a guarantee of fresh water in case of siege. The effort was correspondingly great. The well had to be dug through rock until aquifers, and even to groundwater. This required wells with a depth on average of 20 to 40 m, not uncommonly 70 m, in isolated cases, for example, Kuffhäuser in Thuringia, Homberg or the Königstein fortress in Saxony, more than 140 m. Depending on The rocks and depths above the well worked for a year, sometimes three or five years, while technical difficulties increased, especially the supply of fresh air, increased disproportionately. In extreme cases, the well absorbed as much money as all other buildings.
Reservoirs and filter tanks
If the construction of a well was impossible (as for example in the Jura region, Juragebiet in the Alps) or its cost exceeded the capabilities of the castle owner, then it was necessary to look for a backup solution. The easiest way was to collect rainwater on the castle grounds and store it in reservoirs. Rain and melt water were collected from roofs through pipelines, open or closed. Large wooden baths, special rooms or pits, in large castles there were stone cisterns, reaching, as in the castles of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, the size of an entire hall. In small castles, small cisterns were completely or partially carved into the rock, tapering towards the top, as in the Upper Franconian castle of Rotenhan or the West Palatinate Altdahn.
Water quality was improved by using filter tanks, in which the water first passed through a layer of gravel, crushed stone or sand.
External water supply
Even filtered water becomes salty over time; during hot periods, the tank can also dry out quickly. In addition, cisterns were built more likely in case of siege or emergency, while fresh water was usually used from streams and springs, even if it had to be transported with effort several kilometers away.
It was only rarely possible to shift this burden onto the peasants. As a rule, every morning one or two servants or maids were sent to the valley, who delivered water to the castle either themselves or on the back of a donkey - donkey paths can still be found near many high-rise castles. What seems unbearable to us now was normal everyday life in the Jura region or Franconian Switzerland until the beginning of the 20th century; peasants here had to carry water 4 km from the river valley to the mountains.
If the castle was located on a ledge of a mountain slope, the owner of the castle had the means and there was a source higher up the slope, then a water supply system could be built from wood and clay. This decision, however, was of no value in the event of a siege, since the water supply could easily be cut from the outside. It is not known for sure whether such devices were used in the Middle Ages - the few surviving water pipes come from modern times, when the defensive task of castles receded into the background. How high the interest in fresh water was is shown by the example of Berwartstein Castle: Although there is an 80 m well in the castle, in the 16th century. Due to the poor quality of the water, a water pipeline was built leading to the base of the mountain, from where water was delivered on foot.
The example of Berwartstein clearly shows that they did not rely on one method of obtaining water: in the event of a siege, the castle had to be as autonomous as possible - the well solved this problem perfectly, the cistern provided water for a limited period.
Daily food
Nowhere were social differences more evident in medieval society than in diet. In the early Middle Ages, when the nobility lived in villages or in their vicinity, it was possible to distinguish the housing of the nobility from the housing of peasants even by food waste. Food was the most important attribute of status - the aristocracy and the rest of the population differed much less in clothing and housing than in food.
If a simple knight found himself at the master’s table, then he could already congratulate himself, even if it was an everyday meal and not a holiday. To quote Wolfram von Eschenbach, “where I am addressed as My Master, that is at home, even mice have no reason to celebrate.”
If a simple knight in the 14th or 15th centuries. owned his own castle, he managed to greatly advance up the social ladder. Based on food remains in the castles of the minor nobility, archaeologists were able to reconstruct: naturally they ate meat, but almost exclusively pork and beef. Peasants also ate pigs and cows, but beef was tough and came from their old draft animals. To get the full nutritional value of the meat, both peasants and knights cooked it. Game played only a subordinate role. Thus, there is no need to talk about significant qualitative differences in the diet of knights and peasants. A different picture emerges if we look at the quantitative differences. Based on studies of eating habits in the late medieval Auvergne, we know that rural residents consumed an average of 26 kg of meat per person per year, while the minor nobility consumed about 100 kg - four times more than the peasant.
The most important component of the diet throughout the Middle Ages was, however, not meat, but grain products, which ended up on the table as bread, porridge or beer, less often as rolls, cakes, pies, gingerbreads, and pretzels. In normal times, the difference between a knight and a peasant here was not very great and was rather expressed in quality: the richer the house, the lighter the bread - from black peasant bread to white wheat bread. Grain products completely covered the food needs of a representative of the nobility and almost completely those of the peasant. The failure of the harvest and the rise in prices that steadily followed it directly hit the lower strata and made obvious a measure unknown to us: position on the social ladder during a period of scarcity of food determined who lived and who died.
Compared to grain, all other products, even meat, were just a seasoning, whose ratio, however, spoke about the quality of life and its duration: grain could only cover the basic need for calories, but not for vitamins. First of all, mention should be made of vegetables, which became more and more diverse and were grown in each castle - in the castle garden, in the forburg or in the household yard.
Fruit in the early Middle Ages was supplied primarily by wild varieties, from the 11th-12th centuries. - obtained from planted fruit trees meadows Apples and pears were often boiled, grapes were often processed into wine, vinegar, spirits, fruits were processed into jelly, jam, and syrup. The forest provided berries, rose hips, elderberries, acorns, chestnuts, and nuts. All this was available to peasants in the early and high Middle Ages, but with increasing population density it was increasingly regulated.Fish, the classic food of Lent, played a much larger role than today. The Middle Ages knew 70 days of fasting, pious Christians also fasted on Fridays and Saturdays, and especially strong believers also fasted every Wednesday. These days, meat, poultry and dairy products were taboo, and instead of two main meals, there was only one.
Heavily seasoned food was especially popular. All segments of the population, at least theoretically, had access to all local spices in a breadth that was unusual for us - partly as a replacement for expensive salt. It was different with spices coming from the Mediterranean basin, West Africa or Far East. A small jar of saffron cost like a cow, a pound nutmeg at least 7 bulls, for pepper, ginger or cinnamon they fetched steep prices. For those who wanted to demonstrate wealth, there was a wide field here; they did not skimp on this and even the wine was spiced.
Cloth
| Drawing from Codex Manesse. Beginning 14th century |
We are used to seeing knights in armor, which they naturally wore only for battle. What did the knight wear “in private”? When looking at medieval images, for example the famous Codex Manesse, one immediately notices the lack of difference between men's and women's, adult and children's clothing. Everywhere there are long, ankle-length underwear, above them a caftan that goes to the floor for both women and men. Only in the 15th century. The lower edge of men's clothing began to shift upward - so much so that small differences became clearly visible.
Back in the 10th century. we would do it with ease: a woman in a long, wide dress, a man in a knee-length dress, below are trousers - a kind of medium-length linen pantaloons, “pants”, so-called stockings, are tied to them, stockings are worn on the feet. Differences in the clothing of the nobility and peasants manifest themselves more in quality than in cut.
In the 11th century women's fashion was in motion. The sleeves have become wider and longer, the belt discreetly shows off the figure, the refined and increasingly tapering cut emphasizes the volume of the bust. In the 12th century The figure-flattering development continues, the waist and bust are shaped with lacing. “Almost open and completely naked from the waist up” (Conrad von Wurzburg) is a picture that shocked contemporaries and descendants. Below the waist, the dress fell in wide folds, now it reaches the floor, and when walking it has to be supported. The sleeves grew and also reached the floor; They were not only decoration, but practically served as a scarf, not least as a pledge of high love. The last cry of the beginning of the 13th century. there was a tail, a train of sometimes amazing length, worn on special occasions, for example for dancing. Successful model, which peasant women soon began to imitate. In 1240, the papal Legat Latinus horrified the ladies because he wanted to limit the length of the train: “This was worse than death for the ladies” (Salimbene from Parma, Chronicle).
Men's fashion adjusted, the length of the underwear and caftan increased after 1100 and eventually also reached the floor. Around 1300, a practical dress that reached to the knees was worn by servants and peasants, as well as knights in everyday life. Men's caftans differed from women's caftans by having a slit in the front and back, which made horse riding easier. Even long sleeve was adopted, the upper body was also laced. Outerwear was often shortened in front to reveal the pride of male beauty, “knightly legs.” “The brave men wore scarlet trousers. My God! How beautiful their legs were!” (Gottfried of Strasbourg).
The church came out on a campaign against cheerful costumes; it protested against open men’s legs (especially if the gentlemen “put only a pair of boots on their bare feet”), as well as obscene women's clothing, “who put on display for lovers everything she has to offer them” (Thietmar von Merseburg, “Chronicon”, early 11th century). It seems the church was successful during the 13th century. the extravagance of fashion decreased, and unnecessary decorations were abandoned. On the other hand, evidence of this is provided by tombstone and church images, which do not fully correspond to literary evidence.
In the 13th century in France and Spain, already then centers of Western fashion, the first secular laws against luxury in clothing were issued. They regulated the luxury of clothing at court, in particular establishing how much fur kaftans should be decorated. Only in Central Europe laws on clothing were directed against peasants and prescribed them simple dress, naturally only in brown, blue and black tones. The nobility, on the contrary, loved variegated, light colors and combined green with red, yellow with blue. Eventually, a fashion appeared for fabrics that were colorfully decorated during production, with multi-colored patterns or stripes. Multi-colored stockings were also often worn.
For the nobility, clothing had status significance. If, during the high and late Middle Ages, practical cuts increasingly lost out, and impractical, sometimes grotesque forms developed, then this sends a clear message - the nobility did not have to work. And if court luxury was manifested in bright, expensive clothes, then the decline was most manifested in wearing peasant-practical dress: “Wherever I look, no one is happy anymore... Proud knights wear peasant dress.” - He says already at the beginning. 13th century Walter von der Vogelweide in one of his maxims.
Annual cycle
“Every day you have to care and worry about tomorrow, be on the move all the time, worry all the time. A field must be dug up and dug up again, something must be done in the vineyard. Trees must be planted, meadows must be irrigated, stones must be cultivated on our own piece of land , sow, fertilize, gather ears, grind; now is harvest time, now is the grape harvest again. If the year is bad, which is not uncommon in our infertile area, then there is a terrible need.” This is how Ulrich von Hutten describes it back in the early 16th century. daily life at his father's castle Steckelberg. Even at a time when the monetary economy has advanced far forward, “knightly” everyday life clearly depends on the laws of nature and agriculture. Both the individual knight and the entire medieval society as a whole depended on the harvest agriculture, where 90% of the population worked. A knight could only fight if he could be fed by his peasants and the harvest in his allotment. So we had to constantly look back at agricultural needs - and this manifested itself with the change of seasons.
Summer
"Now is harvest time, so war will have to wait." Already the Franks sought to finish their spring campaigns before the summer in order to be able to take care of the harvest. At the same time, summer was a good time for battles - the days are long, food for horses is at hand, troops can spend the night in the open air. The rivers with their low water levels are easy to cross, the roads, although dusty, are passable. For feuds, “small wars,” summer was even the most suitable time: the enemy had not yet harvested the harvest, and therefore could not hope to withstand a long siege. The destruction of crops such as grapes and standing vegetables should deal a particularly heavy blow, since there is little time to replant and grow the crop again before winter. But as a rule, they still did not wage war or strife, but stayed at home, guarded their harvest, threshed, stored and enjoyed the long warm evenings in the castle.
Autumn
The harvest has been harvested and the warehouses are full. Domestic animals that have grown up over the summer have to be slaughtered, since there is not enough stock for them. On a set day, most often on St. Martin (November 11), peasants deliver dues. Luxurious hunts can be arranged on mown fields. The end of summer and the beginning of autumn was the traditional time for battles. The days became less hot, the roads less dusty. Without difficulty it was possible to feed large masses of troops with our own, or better yet, with captured harvests. Large knightly battles with many participants took place most often from the end of August to the end of September (Crecy, Dürnkrut, Morgarten, Mühldorf)
Winter
In November, the convenient time for travel ended, rains washed out roads, rivers overflowed and became impassable, storms dominated the seas - what was true for the traveler was also true for the army. As a rule, the fighting died down and compromises were sought, unless, of course, the uprisings required intervention. Sometimes the cold had its advantages, since frozen roads were passable for heavy carts and horsemen, ice-covered rivers and swamps no longer served as an obstacle. Whoever waged war in winter provided himself with the element of surprise. As a rule, however, the winter was spent at home, finally remaining with the wife and children. They sat closely next to each other, since only a few rooms of the castle or manor house were heated. We talked and added variety Board games and bones.
Spring
In the end, all the words were said and the games were played, in the damp, cold castles they looked forward to spring. The roads had just thawed, were swampy and impassable, and there was still not enough pasture for the horses. When the cavalry army grew in importance, the Franks in 755 postponed the gathering of their troops from March to May. It began with Easter best time a knight who, in preparation for war or strife, took part in tournaments and multi-day hunts. On Trinity, the year reached its peak with court events, weddings, festive gatherings with music, dancing, and festive food. This could be followed by a spring company, a feud. Then, however, the knight returned to his castle or courtyard to take care of the harvest.
Life style
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Lenka, first tell me how it happened that you became the caretaker of the castle? I know that this is a very interesting and difficult story.
Actually, it's also a very long story. By the time this all happened, that is, by 2007, I had already tried many professions in life: I worked as an English teacher, led excursions in Prague, Paris and London for several years, even sold lingerie in my friend’s boutique.
Khotovyny Castle, 2008
It all happened completely suddenly. I led a historical dance group for about 10 years. And one day, while going to one of the festivals in Romania, I met a driver who often traveled from Romania to the Czech Republic and back. He was a talkative guy. We were chatting, and suddenly he said: “You know, your English is so excellent, I have a client, I always pick her up from the airport. She is a real baroness from a castle in the village of Khotovyny. She lives in the USA, and when she comes here, she is alone all the time. He doesn't know anyone from the village. She will arrive in a month, I must introduce you!”
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That's how I met Jamie Nadherny in August 2007. She was, without exaggeration, the most beautiful woman I have ever seen. She was 28, I was 32. We became friends very quickly.
What kind of castle was this and how did it end up in Jamie's hands?
Chotoviny Castle (Zámek Chotoviny) was built in 1770-1780 by Cardinal Kašpar Migazzi. He rebuilt the old fortress of the 14th century. The castle changed owners several times until it was bought by Jamie's distant ancestor Ian Nadgerny, who later received the title of baron.
Khotovyny Castle, photo 1900
The sad history of the castle began with Jamie's great-great-grandfather Erwin and his beautiful wife Leopoldina (Dinky). She was an amazing woman: she shot better than any man, smoked cigars and donated a lot to the church.
In 1938, both of Erwin's daughters took German citizenship, for which Dinka and Erwin disinherited them. So the castle passed to their youngest son Vaclav Erwin. He and his wife Sofia never harmed anyone, but after the war Khotovyny became a “nest of communists” and the castle was taken away from the family. The couple had to go to Salzburg, and later to the USA, where Jamie, the baron's fifth child, was born.
When her father returned to the Czech Republic in 1992, he managed to return the family property and even slightly restore the castle, which was in absolutely terrible condition. Jamie was the only daughter of his who wanted to keep the castle. The rest of her brothers and sisters chose to inherit something more profitable and practical: forests, ponds and fields...
Tell us a little about Jamie, you always spoke very warmly about her. What was the Baroness like?
Maybe because Jamie was a very kind and warm-hearted person, everyone wanted to fool her.
From left to right: Peter, Baroness Jamie, Lenka
She first hired a woman from the United States, let's call her S. She was supposed to look after the castle while Jamie was in the States. Despite the title, Jamie's life was not different from ours in some places. Her son was seven years old, she was a single mother, in constant conflict with her nightmare ex, and finishing university. Because of this, Jamie could not move to the Czech Republic.
I began to help S. take care of the castle, but it ended up that S. completely washed her hands of it. So, when Jamie returned from the USA, she threw her out of work...
After that, Jamie offered me her place. To be honest, I did not feel that I was ready to take on such responsibility: I did not have an economic education. On the other hand, I had enormous organizational experience: I could conduct excursions in the castle, help with organizing weddings and celebrations... That’s what I told Jamie: that I would gladly take on the cultural part, but someone else should deal with financial issues.
Jamie said that she has such a person - a nice, educated guy from the USA, K., let's call him that. Looking ahead a little, I will say that K. did not lift a finger for Jamie or the castle. A year later, he left the castle, completely ruining it and leaving us with a “memory” of an unsustainable debt in the amount of $85 thousand.
What was your first impression of Hotovyna Castle?
Oh, I fell in love! No, we were completely unprepared for the amount of work that awaited us, or for the lifestyle, but we were ready to do anything for Jamie.
What is it like to live in a castle? Is there a lot of work? What was the hardest thing?
What most people don't understand about a castle is that no matter how magnificent it looks, it is still just a huge house. We even have a proverb: “ Little house- few problems, big house - many problems.”
Peter, my boyfriend, moved into the castle with me to help with the housekeeping. We gave tours, organized weddings, corporate events, flower shows - whatever was needed to make some money for Jamie. We ourselves did not receive a penny for our work.
In addition to work related to the cultural life of the castle, they also had to perform banal household work. Every spring and autumn we washed all 86 windows of the castle, every winter we cleared the snow. Every Monday we had to wash the floors and vacuum in each of the 69 rooms of the castle... I'm not talking about the garden and 26 hectares of park. There was just a lot of work: 12-16 hours a day. And so on for three years.
Were there ghosts in the castle?
Our ghost was Baroness Dinka - the same Leopoldina. At times at night she would walk around the bedroom that had once been her living room. We often heard it, not only us.
In that room there was a beautiful oval-shaped carpet. He was lying on another carpet, and it was very difficult to move him; I couldn’t—I had to call Peter. But every time the tourists left the castle, and we locked the rooms until the morning, in the morning we found this carpet rolled up - Dinka was wandering.
And when we washed the castle for the last time before selling it, we suddenly felt that she was gone. The carpet no longer rolled up, and the building seemed empty and unfamiliar. We felt uneasy and very sad. But when Sergei M. arrived with his wife, we showed them everything, and when we entered this room, we discovered that the carpet had been folded again! She returned - I am sure that Dinka would never have returned if she thought that the castle was in bad hands.
She was the good spirit of the castle.
Were there any evil spirits? Or what scared you?
One day in 2010, Peter said, he was alone in the castle and was already packing his things in his room on the first floor. It was already very late, he was just getting ready to move into my apartment for the winter - in winter we spent the night in another place, there was no electricity in the castle, we had to light our way with oil lamps at night.
And suddenly he heard the castle bell ringing - there was a tower with a clock and a bell in the castle. Only a few moments later did Peter realize that there was no electricity, and the bell was ringing from electricity. So something that happens is simply impossible! Moreover, the time was “uneven” - not half, not a quarter and not an hour, two or three, that is, not the time when the bell rings.
He ran into the hall and saw that all five chandeliers were swaying as if under gusts of wind, and at the end of the hall Peter noticed a dark silhouette. Peter is generally a very logical man, but that incident really shocked him.
Well, have any funny stories happened to you?
Once we were receiving tourists, and one elderly lady looked out of the window and said: “You have some kind of gypsy sitting near the fountain, you should drive her away!” “No, no,” said Peter quickly, “this is our baroness.” It's just Jamie changing clothes to clean the fountain.
Did you manage to earn any money?
Here I must clarify. It was obvious to all of us that Jamie's only option was to sell it. It was just a race against time: we needed to earn money for Jamie to pay off his debtors. Otherwise, the castle would have had to be sold under the hammer for mere pennies.
Khotovyny was sold in 2011 to a Russian named Sergei M. With the proceeds, Jamie bought the farm she had always dreamed of. She loved horses, taught art at school and painted in her own studio.
Would you repeat this experience if offered?
Of course, if you needed to help a friend. Jamie and I had an amazing connection: we absolutely trusted each other, money was never an issue, and for almost 4 years we helped Jamie for free. In fact, we lived on the funds that Peter received for his performances. Not very much, but it was enough for us.
We really wanted to help Jamie in any way we could. We felt that she had been abandoned, deceived and there was no one to help her. And if there is someone whom no one can help, you simply must do it, no matter what the cost. Although I won’t say that it was easy.
It was a monstrous stress, we lost a lot of nerves, and we still have to work very hard to plug the hole in the budget...
But, you know, it was a really amazing experience. And if we had to repeat everything we did, I wouldn’t doubt it.
There are few things in the world more interesting than knight's castles The Middle Ages: these majestic fortresses breathe evidence of distant eras with grandiose battles, they have seen both the most perfect nobility and the most vile betrayal. And not only historians and military experts are trying to unravel the secrets of ancient fortifications. The Knight's Castle is of interest to everyone - the writer and the layman, the avid tourist and the simple housewife. This is, so to speak, a mass artistic image.
How the idea was born
A very turbulent time - in addition to major wars, the feudal lords were constantly fighting with each other. Like a neighbor, so it doesn't get boring. The aristocrats fortified their homes against invasion: at first they would only dig a ditch in front of the entrance and put up a wooden palisade. As they gained siege experience, the fortifications became more and more powerful - so that they could withstand rams and were not afraid of stone cannonballs. In antiquity, this is how the Romans surrounded their army with a palisade while on vacation. The Normans began to build stone structures, and only in the 12th century did the classic European knightly castles of the Middle Ages appear.
Transformation into a fortress
Gradually, the castle turned into a fortress; it was surrounded by a stone wall into which high towers were built. the main objective- make the knight's castle inaccessible to attackers. At the same time, be able to monitor the entire area. The castle must have its own source drinking water- suddenly a long siege awaits.
The towers were built in such a way as to hold off any number of enemies for as long as possible, even alone. For example, they are narrow and so steep that the warrior coming second cannot help the first in any way - neither with a sword nor with a spear. And you had to climb them counterclockwise so as not to cover yourself with a shield.
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Imagine a mountainside on which a knight's castle is built. Photo attached. Such structures were always built at a height, and if there was no natural suitable landscape, they made a bulk hill.
A knight's castle in the Middle Ages was not only about knights and feudal lords. Near and around the castle there were always small settlements where all kinds of artisans settled and, of course, warriors guarding the perimeter.
Those walking along the road always face their right side towards the fortress, the side that cannot be covered by a shield. There is no tall vegetation - there is no hiding. The first obstacle is the ditch. It can be around the castle or across between the castle wall and the plateau, even crescent-shaped, if the terrain allows.
There are dividing ditches even within the castle: if the enemy suddenly managed to break through, movement will be very difficult. If the soil is rocky, a ditch is not needed and digging under the wall is impossible. The earthen rampart directly in front of the ditch was often surrounded by a palisade.
Bridge to external wall made so that the defense of a knight's castle in the Middle Ages could last for years. It's liftable. Either the whole thing or its extreme segment. In the raised position - vertically - this is additional protection for the gate. If part of the bridge was raised, the other was automatically lowered into the ditch, where a “wolf pit” was set up - a surprise for the most hasty attackers. The knight's castle in the Middle Ages was not hospitable to everyone.
Gate and gate tower
The knightly castles of the Middle Ages were most vulnerable precisely in the area of the gate. Latecomers could enter the castle through a side gate via a lifting ladder if the bridge was already raised. The gates themselves were most often not built into the wall, but were located in gate towers. Usually double doors, made of several layers of boards, were sheathed with iron to protect against arson.
Locks, bolts, cross beams sliding across the opposite wall - all this helped hold out the siege for quite a long time. In addition, behind the gate there was usually a strong iron or wooden grille. This is how knightly castles of the Middle Ages were equipped!
The gate tower was designed so that the guards guarding it could find out from the guests the purpose of the visit and, if necessary, treat them with an arrow from a vertical loophole. For a real siege, there were also built-in holes for boiling resin.
Defense of a knight's castle in the Middle Ages
The most important defensive element. It should be tall, thick and better if it is on the base at an angle. The foundation under it is as deep as possible - in case of undermining.
Sometimes there is a double wall. Next to the first high one, the inner one is small, but impregnable without devices (ladders and poles that remained outside). The space between the walls - the so-called zwinger - is shot through.
The outer wall at the top is equipped for the defenders of the fortress, sometimes even with a canopy from the weather. The teeth on it existed not only for beauty - it was convenient to hide behind them at full height in order to reload, for example, a crossbow.
The loopholes in the wall were adapted for both archers and crossbowmen: narrow and long for a bow, widened for a crossbow. Ball loopholes - a fixed but rotating ball with a slot for firing. Balconies were built mainly for decorative purposes, but if the wall was narrow, they were used by retreating and allowing others to pass.
Medieval knight's towers were almost always built with convex towers at the corners. They protruded outward to fire along the walls in both directions. Inner side was open so that the enemy, who penetrated the walls, would not gain a foothold inside the tower.
What's inside?
In addition to the Zwingers, other surprises could await uninvited guests outside the gates. For example, a small closed courtyard with loopholes in the walls. Sometimes castles were built from several autonomous sections with strong internal walls.
Inside the castle there was always a courtyard with household facilities - a well, a bakery, a bathhouse, a kitchen and a donjon - the central tower. Much depended on the location of the well: not only the health, but also the life of the besieged. It happened that (remember that the castle, if not just on a hill, then on the rocks) cost more than all the other buildings of the castle. The Thuringian castle Kuffhäuser, for example, has a well more than one hundred and forty meters deep. In the rock!
Central tower
The donjon is the tallest building of the castle. From there the surrounding area was monitored. And it is the central tower that is the last refuge of the besieged. The most reliable! The walls are very thick. The entrance is extremely narrow and located at a high altitude. The stairs leading to the door could be pulled in or destroyed. Then the knight's castle is still quite for a long time can hold a siege.
At the base of the donjon there was a basement, a kitchen, and a pantry. Next came floors with stone or wooden floors. The stairs were made of wood; if they had stone ceilings, they could be burned to stop the enemy on the way.
The main hall was located on the entire floor. Heated by a fireplace. Above were usually the rooms of the castle owner's family. There were small stoves decorated with tiles.
At the very top of the tower, most often open, there is a platform for a catapult and, most importantly, a banner! Medieval knightly castles were distinguished not only by chivalry. There were cases when a knight and his family did not use the donjon for housing, having built a stone palace (palace) not far from it. Then the donjon served as a warehouse, even a prison.
And, of course, every knight's castle necessarily had a temple. The obligatory inhabitant of the castle is the chaplain. Often he is both a clerk and a teacher, in addition to his main job. In rich castles, churches were two-story, so that the gentlemen would not pray next to the mob. The owner's ancestral tomb was also built within the temple.
Castle, furnishings and customs of its inhabitants
A castle is a fortified dwelling of a feudal lord, a characteristic feature of the Middle Ages. Give an outline of life in the castle until the 12th century. does not make sense, since there is not enough documentary material. What little remains of the dwellings of the 10th and 11th centuries confirms that life there was almost the same as in a fortified camp. In the center of the space surrounded by a moat and a rampart with a palisade, there was a single long-term building - a donjon, which was first a wooden, then a stone round or quadrangular tower, two or three stories high. In addition to the fact that the donjon was a key defensive structure, it was used as housing: on each floor there were one or two halls, poorly heated and poorly lit. The rest of the buildings resembled a farm or village, where people settled as best they could. All these buildings: warehouses for equipment and fodder, a stable with a forge, a feast hall and a kitchen, as well as residential outbuildings for the garrison located along the walls - in case of serious danger, they were simply destroyed, and all the inhabitants of the “castle” took refuge in the dungeon, where there was chance to withstand a long siege. Only in the 12th century. the castle is losing character traits a fortified camp, acquires more reliable stone walls and turns into the permanent home of its owners, who are already accustomed to comfort and have tried to create for themselves all the amenities of everyday life. This is clearly seen in the example of Ark Castle (Fig. 1), the donjon of which was erected back in the 11th century. And in the 12th century, although the same donjon remained the key defensive structure, on the site of the old rampart with a palisade they built stone walls, and all wooden buildings inside the castle were replaced with solid stone buildings.
At the end of the 12th century, after the beginning of the era of the Crusades, the nobles borrowed from the East the habit of luxury, therefore, of exotic fabrics, objects and furniture, which was supposed to radically change the interior furnishings of castles. Cluny reform of the 16th mid-11th century. and the Cistercian movement 17 XI-XII centuries. contributed to the enrichment of the church. The prelates henceforth set an example of refined luxury, although a complete picture of their life cannot be obtained from written sources, despite numerous complaints of abuse at that time. Obviously, the lords could not agree that, next to the arrogant wealth of abbots and bishops, their life looked as rough as in the 10th and 11th centuries, when the property of the castle owner consisted of armor, weapons and a horse, pewter, several jewelry, precious ingots metals, and the knight always preferred to carry all this “capital” with him.
In order for people to begin to build homes for themselves, where over time the things and supplies necessary for life will be concentrated and where their wealth will be stored, a fairly high level of civilization is necessary. The owner of the castle had to be confident not only in the safety of his home, but also in the reliability of the people guarding it. A person needed guarantees of security from the outside: his neighbors had to respect him or fear him. The one who did not rise to this level had not a home, but a lair.
It should be admitted that the “weak half of humanity” worked a lot in “cultivating” feudal morals. The attitude of the Germans towards women was different from that of the Romans, who spent most of their lives outside the home and treated their wives, devoted to the hearth, as creatures who should serve only for entertainment. Roman women could not influence public life. among the Germanic tribes that settled on the territory of the Roman Empire they conquered, a woman, no matter how low, close to slavery, her position was, still to a certain extent participated in the affairs of the family and the entire tribe. Christianity contributed to the rapid development of these trends: emancipation became almost complete. The clergy managed to take advantage of this feature of the barbarian conquerors and did everything to elevate women in their eyes; with her help influence was acquired over the minds of these savages. The more the companion of the Frankish leader moved away from her original position as a servant, the more effective this influence was. The development of the feudal system may well have given women a pronounced dominance in everyday existence. No matter how active the lord was, he had to stay at home for many days. Forced solitude inevitably led to such a commonality of interests of both spouses that the Romans could not even imagine. In this isolated, closed life, where there was a struggle of all against all, women were assigned an important role.
The lord was always on his guard, not trusting even a small number of people from his circle. If he went on a long journey, he had no choice but to entrust the most urgent matters to someone who, in his absence, could, just like himself, command authority and judiciously. It could only be the wife, who almost always acted faithfully and wisely. The moral strength of a woman was strengthened in solitude. Since she did not feel the need for physical activity to the same extent as a man, and was endowed with a more vivid imagination, then her mind was very much in place in a settled life. And it is not surprising that at a time when feudalism was still strong, the role of the Woman became significant, and she had more power and influence on the daily life of the castle than its owner. Being more attached to the house than her husband, the woman, of course, could not help but worry about decorating her home. The spirit of competition also called for this. Already in the 12th century. many castles were luxuriously furnished, and the owners could boast of wallpaper, carpets, carved wood panels, jewelry, wealth all the more significant because it was collected incessantly.
Fashion then had not yet changed as rapidly as it does in our century. However, then, as today, replacing outdated furniture was not easy. It was necessary to order wood carving from a carpenter, which required a lot of time to complete; order mortise locks for furniture from a locksmith; buy fabrics in a city located quite far from the castle. To upholster furniture, a haberdasher, a nailer, a net maker were required, as well as a wool carder, a merchant of linen for lining, and, finally, an upholsterer.
In addition to all this trouble and time, money was also needed, which the feudal lords, the owners of the castles, especially needed, since peasant duties usually came down to payment in natural products, or in exchange for it the peasants served in the feudal lord’s household. For example, the duties of peasants in Normandy were called differently: regarda, regardamenta, regardationes, roarda and respectus; it was a natural rent consisting of chickens, capons, geese, river birds, eggs, and different types bread, flour tortillas and loaves. Sometimes this in-kind collection was supplemented by a monetary collection. Until the end of the 15th century. a type of corvée were also interior work in the castle. In Normandy, the peasants employed by them were called bordiers. They were sent to do the most difficult work: cleaning ponds, drains and ditches; cleaning the premises in the castle, yard, stables; as well as for carrying heavy loads and helping masons during construction.
No less troublesome was the delivery of the furniture manufactured externally to the lord’s castle. This burdensome duty fell on the shoulders of small vassals or residents of villages and hamlets. For example, such transportation required a cart drawn by several pairs of oxen, and the vassal or the village as a whole was required to provide only one horse, or one two-wheeled cart, or one beast of burden. Many such duties are known from sources.
In the cartulary of Chez-Dieu it is written: “...Per servitiurn roncini...Servicium ad sacum masculo equo (for underwater service...bag duty with your horse)..."; and the book of Saint-Flocel says: “The sack and submarine duties of the villans included the supply of horses, and in general these duties were called sommage.”
Difficulties in obtaining a loan and the difficulty of communicating with suppliers of all kinds often led to the decision that it was wiser to keep the old furniture: it was replaced or new items were purchased for it only on special occasions, for holiday celebrations. But since it was not customary to destroy old furniture, so much of it accumulated in the residences of the feudal lords over time that some had to be removed to utility rooms, into the attics, where it rotted under a thick layer of dust.
The premises in the castle were spacious, and it looked little like modern homes. Often, only large halls and several secret passages were made in the building box. This imperfection of the layout was partially eliminated by the fact that the halls were partitioned off with carpets, attaching them to the doors and window frames. Sometimes draperies were used to create something like alcoves; if canopies were used, then clotes (clot?ts) 18 and esperviers (19) or tents appeared in the halls. In manuscripts of the 11th and 12th centuries, on frescoes, stained glass windows and bas-reliefs of the 12th and 13th centuries. Temporary partitions made from carpets are often found in large halls. Sometimes this is seen as an ancient tradition. If necessary, all these partitions could be removed, for example, during large receptions, celebrations or in the summer. This was the case until the Renaissance.
Another type of knights' dwellings were manors (memoir) - small fortified manor houses without a donjon, powerful defensive walls and towers. They usually had two halls. On the ground floor there was a hall with a low ceiling, next to it there was a kitchen and a basement; on the second floor there was another hall and a dressing room next to it.
Basically, the castle premises were preserved standard layout which in different castles differed only in the area of the halls and the number of rooms. In the hall for general meeting there was a bedroom allocated as a separate room. The furnishings of the hall consisted of a bench with low backs, armrests and pillows, light mobile chairs, carpets or reed mats, curtains on the windows and doors, big table, attached to the floor, dressoirs, 20 credenzas, 21 folding chairs and a master's chair. In the evening the hall was illuminated wax candles in iron sconces embedded in the walls on both sides of the fireplace, as well as candelabra standing on the table, and chandeliers consisting of two iron or wooden crossbars. This illumination was enhanced by the glow of the flames burning in the fireplace. In the bedroom, with a four-poster bed and an armchair, there were many pillows, and there were chests that also served as benches. The walls were covered with Flemish tapestries (Fig. 5) or painted canvases, and on the floor were “Saracenic” (pile) carpets made by French masters, Parisian in particular.
In the dressing room there were rows of chests with linen, summer and winter clothes, and the owner’s armor. This room was quite spacious, since the masters and craftswomen who sewed clothes worked here. Some fabrics at that time could only be purchased at fairs, which were held from time to time in cities, so it was necessary to purchase fur, cloth, and silk fabrics in advance for the entire season. In addition, most lords took it upon themselves to provide their household with clothing, and therefore it was sewn in the castle. Oriental spices, which were extremely expensive at that time, were also stored in the dressing room.
The same layout in the large and small castles is explained by the fact that they had to have the same services, because the feudal system made each vassal of the crown a small sovereign. Each had his own court, his own audiences, his own archives, his own court, his own warriors, seneschal, steward, hunter, groom, etc.
By the end of the 13th century. morals became more refined. A striking example of this is the castle of Coucy (Fig. 2). 22 The donjon (Fig. 3) ceases to be a permanent dwelling, although it remains the tallest and most powerful tower in the fortification system. In the castles around the central courtyard, real houses appeared, among which the lord's palace stands out. Personal apartments began to be separated from rooms intended for audiences and halls where warriors were housed. It was the change in feudal mores that led to the modification and partial reconstruction of ancient castles of the 12th and 13th centuries. The lords no longer wanted to live with their servants. The bedrooms were separated from the apartments where the receptions took place; each bedroom had a dressing room with a separate entrance. Often they were adjoined by offices or secluded rooms, as, for example, in the castles of Coucy, Pierrefonds, Creil, Losches. The offices had furniture made of valuable wood, and the walls were decorated with wooden panels. As Leboeuf writes: “In the Marcoussis castle in the old days there was furniture made of oak, cedar and aromatic wood, as well as long tables or chests for feeding silkworms, and even mills and tools for the production of silk..” Spinning wheels, looms and hoops as well were in the office, while the women's quarters were separated from the rooms of the owner of the castle, often placing them in a separate residential building. There were also guest rooms, which were most often located near the outer walls, with separate staircases and entrances leading to them.
To give an idea of life in a 14th-century castle, here is an excerpt from the Chronicle of Count Don Pedro Nnnyo:
“There lived near Rouen a noble knight called Monsieur Renaud de Trie, admiral of France, and he was old. And he sent a messenger to Captain Pedro Niño, so that he would come to see him. Then he left Rouen and came to Cirefontaine, where the admiral lived. He received him very kindly, invited him to relax and have a good time after such great work at sea. And indeed, he rested there for three days. The admiral was an old and sick knight, wounded in service, because it went through continuous battles. He used to be a very formidable knight, but now he is no longer fit for court or for military service. He lived secludedly in his castle, where there were many amenities and all kinds of things necessary for his person. And his castle was simple and strong, but so well built and furnished, as if it stood in Paris itself. His nobles and servants lived there for all services, as befits such a noble lord. In this castle there was a very beautifully decorated chapel, where mass was celebrated every day. A river flowed in front of the castle, along which many trees and bushes grew. On the other side of the castle there was a pond very rich in fish with gates that were locked, and on any day in this pond one could get enough fish to feed three hundred people. And when they wanted to take fish, they lowered the water in the feeding channel to such a level that it could not enter the pond, and opened a channel through which all the water flowed out of this reservoir. Then the fish could be easily selected, leaving what was unnecessary; then the canal was filled with water again. And the old knight kept forty or fifty dogs for hunting game along with his hunters. In addition to dogs, there were also up to twenty horses for riding, among them warhorses, racers and pacers. There is no need to talk about furniture and supplies. The castle was surrounded by large forests, where there were olein, fallow deer and wild boars. The owner of the castle had neblis (peregrine falcons), which the French call gentils (noble); falcons flew over the river and, as birds of prey, were perfectly trained for hunting herons.
The wife of the old knight was the most beautiful lady who ever lived in France, she came from the oldest family of Normandy, she was the daughter of the lord de Bélange. And she possessed all the virtues befitting such a noble lady: a great mind, and she knew how to rule the house better than any one of the ladies of her country, and was rich accordingly. She lived in a house next to the house of Mr. Admiral, and between the houses there was a drawbridge. Both houses were surrounded by one wall. The furniture and furnishings in both houses were so rare that a story about them would take up too much space. They kept in houses up to ten well-born girls, fairly well-fed and dressed, who had no worries except about own body and about pleasing your mistress. Imagine how many maids there were.
I will tell you the routine and rules that the lady followed. She got up in the morning at the same time as her girls, and they went to the nearest forest, each with a book of hours and a rosary, and sat down in a row and prayed, opening their mouths only for prayer; then violets and other flowers were collected; Having returned to the castle, they listened to a short mass in the chapel. Upon leaving the chapel, they brought us a silver basin filled with food - there were many chickens, and larks, and other fried birds; and they ate them or refused them and left them as they wished, and served them wine. The lady rarely ate in the morning, except to please those who were with her. Immediately the lady and her maids of honor mounted the amblers in the finest and most beautiful harness imaginable, and with them the knights and nobles who were there, and they all went for a walk in the fields, scattered like rosaries across the greenery. And there one could hear the singing of lay, virelet, rondo, pompient, ballads and songs of all kinds that are known to the truvères of France, in different and very consonant voices. Captain Pedro Niño went there with his nobles to take part in all the festivities, and likewise returned from there to the castle at lunchtime; Everyone dismounted from their horses and entered the banquet hall, where tables were set up. The old knight, who could no longer ride, waited and received them so courteously that it was simply a miracle, for he was a very courteous knight, although weak in body. When the admiral, the lady and Pedro Niño sat down at the table, the butler invited the others to the table and seated each girl next to the knight or squire. The meat was very varied and in abundance, with good seasonings; meat, fish, and fruits differed depending on the day of the week. During dinner, he who could speak could, with courtesy and modesty, talk of battles and of love, confident that he would find ears that would hear him and a tongue that would answer him and leave him satisfied. There were also jugglers playing glorious stringed instruments. When the “Benedicite” was read and the tablecloths were removed, the minstrels arrived, and the lady danced with Pedro Niño, and each of his knights with the maiden, and this dance lasted about an hour. After the dance, the lady kissed the captain, and the knight kissed the girl with whom he danced. Then spices and wine were served; after dinner everyone went to bed. The captain went to his room, which was located in the mistress’s house and was called the tower room (chambre touraine). As soon as they got up after sleep, everyone sat in the saddle, and the pages brought falcons, and herons were tracked down in advance. The lady placed the noble falcon on her arm, the pages scared the heron, and the lady released the falcon so deftly that it couldn’t be better. And then a wonderful hunt began and there was great fun: dogs swam, drums beat, lures flew into the air, and girls and nobles frolicked so joyfully on the river bank that it is impossible to describe. At the end of the hunt, the lady dismounted from her horse, the rest dismounted and took chickens, partridges, cold meat and fruits from the baskets, and everyone ate, after which they dispersed in different directions - they scattered like rosaries on the greenery - and returned to the castle, singing funny songs . In the evening they had dinner, and the lady went on foot to the field to have fun, and they played ball until dark. They returned to the hall by torchlight, then the minstrels came, and everyone danced until late at night. Then they brought fruit and wine, and, having taken their leave, everyone went to bed.
Days passed in this way every time the captain or other guests arrived. The lady managed and disposed of all this: she managed both her lands and other property, for the admiral was rich, had lands and considerable rent, but he did not interfere in anything, as long as his wife managed everything. And, as is customary among polite people, Pedro Niño was so beloved by the lady for the virtues she saw in him that she, having talked with him about her affairs, invited him to visit her father, a noble knight who was known as Bélange and lived in Normandy "
Among the information presented in this passage, of course, the most interesting is the information about the owner of the castle, whose apartments were separated from other residential buildings by a drawbridge. She exactly plays the role, as they would say now, of the mistress of the house, who exercises all the power in the domain. Thus, in the XIV century. The role of women in a feudal castle was significant. Not only the passage from the novel about Don Pedro Niño illuminates this: both Froissart and other authors of the 15th century. They repeatedly talk about the owners of the castles who managed the affairs of the lord. It is easy to understand that under the influence of women, the castles of the lords were not only filled with necessary things, but also became the focus of luxury items with which anyone living richly and idlely surrounds himself. Over the course of one century, the morals of the feudal lords changed radically. Novels of the 13th century contain stories about women whose position is far from the independence that ladies had in the 14th century. And before they were treated with attention and respect, but still they were in a subordinate position. There is no trick that poets have not come up with for ladies who want to get rid of the absolute power of their husband: these tricks, of course, have always been completely successful. When you read about this in many novels written in the 13th and 14th centuries, it becomes clear that the morals of that era were very far from barbaric. In these literary works the aroma of refined courtesy is perceptible; Every page shows the sophistication of customs, the love of luxury and comfort. How little does this resemble the wild customs, rudeness, fanfare and unceremoniousness which most modern authors consider proper to attribute to the nobles and burghers of that era. Rather, there is reason to reproach the society of the 13th and 14th centuries. in excessive sophistication, reaching the point of affectation.
Charles V (1364 - 1380) provided Queen Joan of Bourbon, his wife, with a magnificent retinue. he surrounded her with the most noble ladies of France: “... well-born, courteous, worthy and well-mannered, for otherwise they would not deserve such a place. And they were dressed in appropriate outfits, each according to their own taste and in accordance with the solemnity of the holiday... The halls and rooms for visitors were decorated with rich embroidery, made with silk and large gold beads on various fabrics; the gold and silver dishes and other noble utensils were no less wonderful...” The queen’s house was beautifully arranged and could be an example of impeccable management, “for otherwise the wisest king would not have tolerated it, without whose decree and order they did not start any new business. And, as befits a courteous sovereign, to the joy of the barons, happy with the sovereign’s presence, the wise King Charles feasted with them in the hall. He equally liked to see the queen surrounded by princesses and ladies, unless this was prevented by her pregnancy or other inconveniences. She was served by nobles appointed by the king, reasonable, faithful, kind and courteous. During this meal, according to the ancient royal custom, in order to avoid unnecessary and empty words and thoughts, he sat at the end of the table worthy person, who tirelessly read about the virtuous deeds of one of the respected deceased. Thus the wise king ruled his faithful wife, with whom he lived in good peace and love and in continuous fun, sending her interesting and beautiful things that brought joy, like other gifts that he received, or, believing that this thing would please the queen, I bought it myself and bought it. And the faces around him were always cheerful, and polite, funny and sharp words were heard..."
By the beginning of the 13th century. The morals of the nobility had already been touched by romantic and feigned gallantry, which would be especially revered in the 14th century. They moved from deference and respect to a woman to the manifestation of blind devotion; this is a genuine cult, the scope and excess of which is illustrated by the novels of that era. IN Everyday life this is expressed in the exorbitant luxury of clothes, jewelry, weapons and furniture; the lords tried to outdo each other in spending on all this. Gradually, sincerity in the desire to please women degenerates into vanity; passion begins to be appreciated by the luxury displayed at tournaments, holidays, feasts and in the home.
The furniture was not only valuable in terms of processing and materials, and in the fabrics with which it was covered, it was unusually diverse in shape. Houses were simply filled with items that were considered necessary in that refined society. When they talk about the simplicity of the morals of our ancestors, one should not look for this trait in the period from the reign of St. Louis (1226 - 1270) to Charles VI (1380 - 1422). One must either go back to the depths of centuries, or not go further than the end of the 16th century, when part of the nobility, imbued with the ideas of the Reformation, plunged into civil war, had neither the leisure to indulge in luxury nor the means to acquire it. At the end of the 12th century. Most of the nobles visited the East, from where they acquired a taste for luxurious robes and precious furniture. And as artisans during the reign of Saint Louis IX became more and more skilled and there were more and more of them, the castles were filled with luxurious carpets, carved, inlaid, painted and gilded furniture. Heavy chests, Romanesque chairs and beds gave way to more comfortable and elegant ones. But they didn’t stop there: now it was necessary for the rooms to be better heated and locked more securely. They began to cover the windows with curtains and cover the walls with carved wooden panels and carpets. In the 13th century. in the spacious rooms of the castle, small rooms were fenced off with plank walls or draperies - clotes, where beds were placed; “In a room well caulked, beautifully draped with brocade and silk.”
There were steps in front of the benches and chairs, and footstools were placed so as not to touch the cold stone floor. Woolen carpets, furs or mats (sometimes scented) were spread on the floor, flowers and fragrant branches were scattered: “She goes ahead, and he follows her; So they passed the tower and entered a large hall covered with small reeds; and it all smelled so fragrant, as if all the spices of the world were spread here.”
In castles, the number of benches, armchairs and chairs was constantly increasing: some were massive, richly decorated, equipped with canopies, standing in one place (Fig. 6); 23 others were portable, differing in a variety of sizes and shapes. The ancient custom of sitting on the floor was also preserved, and taking this into account, many pillows, furs, and rugs were prepared in the rooms. In Joinville’s “History of Saint Louis” we read: “He (the king) ordered a carpet to be laid out in order to seat us around him.”
A unique look for apartments in castles of the 13th-14th centuries. they added partitions - something like a tent camp, set up in gigantic halls as needed. The arriving guest was placed in the hosts' room, where a bed was placed, hung so that a kind of small tent appeared in the large room. Therefore, in large rooms, next to elegant furniture, there was a chest containing cloth and poles for such work.
Along with exquisite furnishings, there were ordinary things necessary for household use. Crossbars on which linen or clothes were hung are often found in the text of novels and chronicles: “... Squirrel robes and gray fur coats that were thrown on the crossbars...” The “Roman of the Knight of the Cart,” written in the 12th century, says : “And when the knight of the Cart (Lancelot) arrived there, he climbed the steps into the tower and found a white beautiful room; and entering it, he discovered the most beautiful bed in the world that was there. He closed the windows, which had been opened in order to ventilate the room; began to take off his armor. But two servants immediately came in and undressed him. And he saw the cloak hanging on the crossbar, took it and put it on, and wrapped his head so that he would not be recognized.”
Changing lifestyles have led to the emergence of new types of furniture. From the middle of the XIV to the middle of the XV century. The headdresses of noble ladies were intricate, the process of putting them on required a lot of effort and time, so it was natural to have special utensils and furniture in the dressing room for this purpose. This item became round tables with wooden or metal (sometimes even silver) stands rotating on a pin for mirrors, headdresses and others small items toilet (Fig. 8). The name “young lady” (damoiselle) was given to this item because it had two “arms” and was crowned with a head on which the headdress was hung.
Luxury in the 14th century. became so common that for a middle-income nobleman getting married was not an easy task. And Eustache Deschamps (c. 1346 - c. 1407), master of the horse of kings Charles V and Charles VI, bailiff of Senlis and owner of the castle of Fim, gives a satirical list of the expenses for the wedding of a nobleman. He begins with the following words:
So know that respectable matrons need
Luxurious thrones, great palaces,
And those who are just getting ready to get married,
They change their desires too often, keep in mind:
They need to have a farm,
To decorate your house no worse than others,
Do you know what this means, poor man?
Your income will never be enough!
The following is a list of the lady’s requirements for the groom. She needs a huge number of toilet items: clothes made of brocade and silk, a tiara and a belt made of gold, hairpins made of silver, etc. Then she demands a cart, a pacer, so as not to “disgrace the honor of her master”; however, doesn't she come from a good home? Could she not have travel at all, which ordinary city women also have? But her demands do not end there; she wants constant attention...
I see, my dear, she says,
What if husbands often go to Paris,
Or to Reims, or to Rouen, or to Troyes,
They always bring it to their wives
Gloves, fur coats and belts,
Rings, agraphs, silks and furs,
Cups and goblets made of silver,
And huge, luxurious headdresses...
The bride still emphasizes that she knows about her responsibilities, but since she is a real lady, she needs elegant things for needlework: wallets embroidered with stones, knives decorated with beautiful carvings, carved needle cases with enamel. The lady reminds her future husband that when she is expecting a child, she will need a beautiful canopied bed, decorated with white camelot and brocade; and:
I still need a better comb
A mirror so that I can look in it,
Give me ivory;
With a case, beautiful on the outside, inside
And on a silver chain...
At the end, the lady notes that she also needs a book of hours, with rich miniatures, bound in gold cloth.
Next comes a list of the necessary domestic servants: first of all, we need a chambermaid, who accompanies the lady when going out, and an equerry, whose duties include walking ahead and behind the lady and paving the way for her in the crowd; a cleric and chaplain to say mass in the morning; maid and cooks. But that is not all...
When, as a result of a happy life together, the spouses’ household grows, the lady will certainly need a butler and a housekeeper. And what a farm it will be! There should be a huge supply of grain in the basements of the house, poultry houses, stables and barns filled with oats and hay will appear, strong working horses, riding horses and pacers will appear in the stables! Such a prosperous house, of course, will be visited by many guests, and therefore the halls and chambers in it must be worthy:
To receive foreign guests in them;
And if they want to spend the night
There were good lodges in the rooms,
And let those gentlemen remember
Our tablecloths and towels.
And, of course, you can’t do without good-quality furniture: beautiful armchairs, long benches with armrests, tables, trestles for tables, fireplace screens and cupboards. There should be a great variety of dishes: silver dishes; It’s better to make silver bowls, too, but if the groom wants to save money, then tin and lead are best; drink mugs, pots, washing jugs, salt shakers; all kitchen utensils - cauldrons and pots, definitely frying pans, hooks for cauldrons, braziers, gravy boats, skewers, both iron and wooden, “special hooks for pots” (grips), because:
You can burn your hand while pulling it out.
Meat from the pot, if you don't pick it up with a hook...
As you can see, the kitchen is the subject of special attention of the future housewife; here she knows everything down to the smallest detail. Hubby should make sure that the kitchen has stone stands, frying needles, a mortar and pestle, onions and garlic, a hair sieve and a slotted spoon are also needed to speed up the preparation of the puree, large spoons and small spoons and...
You need lard to grease the baking sheets.
The housewife continues that she needs: stove shovels, bowls, kitchen knives, firewood, coal, salt, vinegar, various spices, meat cutting boards, powdered sugar for adding to ipokras, white sugar for cakes, fruits, canned food, dragees, napkins, towels and at the end:
I haven't told you yet
Why do we need chests and caskets?
And they shouldn't be empty.
Next comes a description of the future husband's wardrobe, then his own, ladies' wardrobe. From this impressive list of various attire, we can conclude that the toilets of modern ladies are no more fancy and luxurious than those worn by fashionistas of the 14th century. 24 The author ends his curious essay with the following tercet:
What expenses does marriage require?
I wrote it down for the fool to read,
Who suddenly decided to get married?
Since the 14th century luxury penetrated into the burgher environment; now the homes of wealthy merchants were not inferior in luxury and sophistication to the furnishings in the houses of nobles. The wives of townspeople, like the wives of lords, according to novelists and poets, spent money without regard to the state of affairs of their husbands.
True luxury is ruinous. The fabrics were very expensive; they had not yet learned how to make them cheap while providing acceptable appearance. The carvings that abundantly decorated the furniture turned each item into a valuable work of art, but medieval furniture is characterized not so much by luxury as by taste and common sense in the choice of forms, a boldly expressed purpose of the item, an endless variety of shapes and finishes, an impressive appearance, as well as skillful use of material depending on its quality and properties.
Therefore, wood, copper, iron retained the forms natural to each material; the composition was always quite definite, no matter how complex the ornament. Wooden furniture is always somewhat close in appearance to primitive carpentry; but in the 15th century this was disguised with elaborate decorations. Until then, furniture simple shapes covered with fabrics, mainly for wealthy nobles. This conclusion suggests itself if you leaf through the inventories and look at the miniatures in the manuscripts.
Concluding the chapter, we will provide readers with descriptions of the interiors of castle rooms of the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries.
Architecture of the mid-12th century. (Fig. 9) is distinguished by its simplicity: a number of connected purlins rest on powerful pillars, logs are placed on the beams, which serve as support for the ceiling made of timber. The stones are round; its exhaust hood is decorated with paintings. A similar stone has been preserved in the hall of the children's choir chapel near the cathedral in Puy-en-Velay. Next to the fireplace is a statue depicting the patron saint of the owner of the room; underneath it there is an iron candlestick attached to the wall. The curtains are mounted on movable iron brackets so that the windows can be closed during the day in the rooms of castles of the 12th and 13th centuries. Iron brackets are still found along the windows, into which movable brackets were inserted. The bed (Fig. 10) is covered with two canopies, which are supported by iron rods attached to the wall with staples and to the ceiling with ropes. A lamp was lit at night at my feet. The furniture consists of benches (escabeaux), folding and simple wooden chairs, cabinets and benches (bancs), which also serve as chests. The walls are decorated with simple two- or three-color frescoes, where yellow and brown-red dominate. Richer fabrics are decorated with embroidery or appliqué. The floor is made of small glazed tiles.
In castles of the mid-13th century. the size of windows in the rooms has increased significantly (Fig. 11); window curtains are attached to the rods with ropes, which are used to move their panels; windows - with shutters; the ceiling imitates beam floor, it is made carefully and elegantly, decorated with carvings and decorations. Regular benches are covered with cushions and pushed into window openings. The stones are more spacious, and the exhaust hood is decorated with sculpture. The bed (Fig. 12) is behind a low partition resembling a stationary screen; above the bed there is a canopy suspended from the ceiling, with curtains on three sides; the front one is usually raised and tied during the day. To the side of the bed is a massive chair (chaire), a place of honor with two steps covered with cushions. The walls are covered with carpets, which in front doorways cut through. All furniture consists of: a bench with backs or bench-chests, small benches and folding chairs; a cabinet standing between the windows, decorated with iron fittings, carvings and paintings; There are pillows and carpets on the floor and seats.
In the rooms of castles from the early 14th century. Much more furniture could be seen, and it became much more luxurious and comfortable than in previous periods. In the corner by the window, at a distance from the walls, there was usually a bed (Fig. 13), covered with wide curtains. In the picture, a bench with a backrest is moved closer to the bed so that the backrest replaces the screen. The furnishings also began to be complemented by a luxurious wardrobe - a dressing gown, with ceremonial expensive dishes (cassock 7). The fireplace hood (cassock 14) is decorated with a large coat of arms with two shield holders. The beams and beams on the ceiling are covered with elaborate carvings.
The walls of the room are from the early 15th century. (cassock 15) are lined with carved wooden panels, even the bed is placed in a clot (cassock 16), covered with skillful carvings. The windows are wide and ceiling beams arranged so as to form a series of caissons. The floor is covered with carpets. Furniture is becoming more and more elegant.
The remains of dressing rooms from the 15th century were preserved in the Pierrefonds castle. with wood paneling and tile trim. Such rooms usually had a chair with a hole, or a toilet seat (siege d’aisance), which did not interfere with entertaining close friends in this dressing room attached to the bedroom. The dressing rooms of the Pierrefonds castle had fireplaces and toilet seats built into the walls, with drainage holes leading outside. Along the perimeter of the room (cassock 17) there are cabinets and chests for clothes, weapons, jewelry, fabrics. In the center there is a low platform behind which tailors, seamstresses, etc. work.
The main, large hall of the castle never seemed too spacious, although plans of castles built after the 12th century show that the halls were given more space than other rooms. This is explained by the fact that the life of the owner of the castle and his soldiers, if they were not on a campaign or hunting, took place in the main hall. There the lord held court, gathered his vassals, organized holidays and feasts. In Fig. 4 shows the main hall of the donjon of the castle of Coucy.
The grandeur of palace halls and halls in castles is not surprising if you remember how many people were supposed to fit there. William I the Conqueror (1066-1087) upon his return to England summons the entire court:
How the king returned to England,
He gave a great feast at Westminster;
In a hall that was only recently built,
A rich and luxurious holiday was arranged.
There were many counts, dukes and noble guests there;
And a thousand and three hundred gatekeepers at the doors,
Each was given squirrel fur
And a good dress from distant countries.
And the more noble the Norman baron was,
He appeared with a larger retinue.
The gatekeepers used their wands
They cleared the way for the bishops,
So that the servant does not climb forward,
Until the gatekeeper calls.
The English king William the Red (1087-1100) ordered the construction of a hall next to Westminster Abbey, where Norman kings often lived; this hall was one of the most luxurious in the world, as the chronicle testifies: “When it (the hall) was ready, (Wilhelm) came and blasphemed (the hall) so cruelly that people asked why he blamed the work done, whether he found the room too big. “I swear to God! - answered the king. “It (the hall) is good for nothing: it is too big for a room and too small for a hall...”
Wilhelm planned to hold a feast in the new hall, but the room had not yet been roofed. “And listen to what he said: he ordered to collect all the silks in London and cover the hall with them; and while the celebration lasted, the hall was covered with silk fabrics.”
In the 13th century. It also happened that it was difficult to find a room for crowded meetings; It was then that they began to provide huge halls during the construction of castles and residences of lords. When Louis IX, shortly before the revolt of the Comte de la Marche, arrived in Poitiers, he called a large meeting of nobles at Saumur. Joinville, an eyewitness to this, left a detailed description of the large company gathered there. The celebration was held in the halls of the covered market of Saumur; “...and they said about it that the great king Henry of England (1154 - 1189) built it for great festivities. And the market was built in the manner of a monastery of white monks; but I believe that he was not too big for them.” The King and Queen Mother Blanca of Castile were seated in one of the galleries, together with twenty bishops and archbishops, surrounded a large number knights and squires. In the opposite gallery there were kitchens, grain storages, bottle warehouses and storerooms. The other two wings and the courtyard were filled with diners; “and they say that there were a good three thousand knights there.”
Froissart describes in detail the feast that Duke John of Lancaster (1351 - 1399) gave in 1386 in honor of King Joan I of Portugal (1357 - 1433): “And in the duke’s palace all the chambers and halls were decorated with coats of arms and trellises and ducal embroidery, so rich and so plentiful, as if in London.” The tables were arranged as follows: a high table, at which sat the king of Portugal, four bishops and archbishops, the Duke of Lancaster, “... one servant next to the king and one next to the duke - these were respectively the Earl of Novarre and the Earl of Angus, Portuguese.” Two tables, probably arranged in a U-shape, for grand masters of orders, noble barons, dignitaries, abbots and ambassadors. The remaining - individually - tables were intended “... for the knights and squires of the Portuguese, for not a single Englishman sat that day at the table in the hall where the meal took place; Only English knights and squires served at the table, and Sir John Holland sat at the royal table; and wine was served that day: to the King of Portugal - Gallop Ferrand Persec, a Portuguese, and to the Duke of Lancaster - Thierry de Soumin of Hainaut. The meal was plentiful and beautiful, and everything needed was there in abundance; and a great multitude of minstrels showed their art. And the duke gave him a hundred nobles and the heralds too, when they began to cry out loudly for his generosity...” After the meal: “You would have seen the servants rushing to take off the cloth and carry them away, and they did not stop this all night; and on Sunday everything was taken away..."
During feasts, the sovereign's place was usually under a canopy (Fig. 6), and his table was placed higher than others. Dinners, as a rule, sat only on one side of the table, which was quite narrow to make it more convenient to serve those seated. But in the 15th century. There were already double tables, very wide, and it was even possible to act out skits on them. The entire ceremony of the festive meals was described by Olivier de la Marche (c. 1426 - 1502) in the Journal of the House of Duke Charles of Burgundy. When those sitting at the table were headed by the overlord, nobles, often on horseback, served. During the breaks between dishes, performances based on the plots of fables were performed - dialogues in verse or pantomime; they were called interludes (entremets). All those present, except the overlords, sat on benches (or bancs, where it comes from French word“banquet” - feast), covered with carpets and pillows, leaves and flowers lay on the floor. The table was set with soft tablecloths, that is, folded in half. The main lighting came from candles held in the hands of servants. In the feast hall, dressing rooms filled with dishes made of pure and gilded silver, glassware and items coated with enamels were specially displayed. Each type of dishware had its own separate cabinet. According to the ancient custom, flowers were laid on the tables, and those feasting wore wreaths of flowers and crowned the cups from which they drank with them. The start of the meal was announced by blowing a horn; this was called “calling for water” (corner l'eau): before the meal, servants brought in jugs of water and special basins for washing hands (Fig. 18 and 19). After eating, the tablecloths were removed; games began, and at this time spices were served, which were not part of the meal, but were perceived like modern coffee. Fruits after meat began to be served to feasters only in the 16th century; Previously, they were often brought at the beginning of the meal. Legrand d'Ossy in "History of the Private Life of the French" described this, giving a lot of details that it makes no sense to reproduce here.
In Fig. 20 depicts a large feast of the prince of the second half of the 14th century. In the center, under the canopy, is the overlord's chair, higher than the others. it stands at a special table, at which sit members of the owner’s family and people to whom he bestows this honor. Behind the table are the trinkets where the best dishes; The wines in the vessels are also placed outside the table - on credenzas. The mounted nobles bring dishes, which first one of the nobles, bending his knee, shows to the feasters, and then passes them to the steward (ecuyer transbant), who serves the lord. A sideshow is played in front of the prince's table.
In the foreground in the center of the hall there are two large buffets, 25 on which dishes brought from the kitchen are placed - meat is cut here, plates and cutlery are placed. The servants, taking the chopped food from the buffets, serve it to the feasters; they choose and place them on silver and tin plates. The butler is in charge of serving food.
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The castle was not only a fortress, but also a home. It could belong to a powerful lord or king. The large castle was occupied by the feudal lord's family, as well as his steward, knights, warriors, tax collectors, servants, cooks and hunters.
changing times
Medieval castles, built as fortresses, could not provide any particular comfort or privacy. At the beginning of the 15th century. they began to be rebuilt, and already at the end of the 15th century. large palaces with exquisite interiors appeared.
mistress of the castle
During the absence of the feudal lord, his wife, the mistress of the castle, ran the affairs. She had all the keys and ran the household, managing numerous servants.
priest
The castle had its own chapel. Usually it was a room with high ceilings, the light into which came through stained glass windows decorated with scenes from the Bible. Standing in front of the altar, the priest conducted a service for the household.
blacksmith
There was a blacksmith's workshop in the castle courtyard. Weapons, tools, bars of castle gates, chains, horseshoes and other items were made and repaired here.
servants
Servants chopped wood, fetched water from the well, cooked food, made beds, washed clothes, washed floors, cleaned stables, tended gardens, lit candles - there's just too much to list.
children
The eldest son of the feudal lord plays in the master's chambers - the family living room on the first floor of the castle. She's warm and sunny in summer, but in winter it is very cold there, so it was heated by a large fireplace.
master's chambers
Compared to a modern house, the castle had quite a bit of furniture. Linen, clothing and valuables were stored in large chests on the floor. To protect against drafts in the bedroom, fabric was hung on four posts around the bed. This type of bed is called a canopy bed.
