Modern Russian conservative publicists and the connection of their work with M.O. Menshikov
It is known that journalism is one of the most ancient professions. Alexandra Mikhailidi found out who excited minds and wrote reports two centuries ago.
Uncle Gilyai is how Muscovites easily called the famous publicist Vladimir Gilyarovsky: at the end of the 19th century, literally every dog knew him. To say that Gilyarovsky lived a full life is to say nothing: he worked as a barge hauler, a hookman, a stoker, a herd driver, a circus rider, a fireman, and was even a theater actor. The list doesn't end there. All the experiences he gained during his wanderings became the material for his numerous essays and articles. The most famous of them were included in the collection “Moscow and Muscovites” - it is still a textbook for future journalists.
Uncle Gilyai participated in Russian-Turkish war and was at the Khodynka disaster
Uncle Gilyai also took part in the Russian-Turkish war (essays were published in Russkie Vedomosti) and was present on the Khodynka field during the stampede. The publicist miraculously survived, but published a report the very next day.
In addition, Vladimir Gilyarovsky was one of the first to raise the topic of homeless animals in the essay “Catching Dogs in Moscow” (1887).
First of all, Krylov is known as the author of 236 fables, well known from school curriculum(“Monkey and glasses”, “Crow and Fox”, “Swan, crayfish and pike”, “Wolf in the kennel” and so on). Many of them have become popular expressions: “It’s just a mess even now”, “God save us from such judges!”, “It’s your fault that I want to eat!” and others.
Krylov owned his own printing house and was the editor of the Spectator magazine
Even in these “children’s” fables, one can note a sharp satire on life, everyday life and the political situation in the country. This was especially evident in his essays and pamphlets (“Eulogy in memory of my grandfather”, “Speech delivered by a rake in a meeting of fools”, “Thoughts of a philosopher on fashion”). The fabulist owned his own printing house and was the editor of the Spectator magazine, which later became the St. Petersburg Mercury. This edition published the poet’s major plays: “Kaib, an Eastern Tale”, the fairy tale “Nights”, “A Eulogy to the Science of Killing Time” and “A Eulogy to Ermolafides, Delivered at a Meeting of Young Writers”.
Aksakov’s literary talent manifested itself while studying at the Kazan Open University: he began writing poetry and became interested in theater. The future publicist never managed to finish university, so he got a job as a translator at the Commission for Drafting Laws in St. Petersburg. However, he was not so much concerned with the affairs of the Commission as with culture: Aksakov quickly acquired a wide circle of acquaintances and immersed himself in artistic, literary and theatrical life.
In 1827, he assumed the position of censor: contemporaries noted that he performed his duties conscientiously, primarily taking into account not the essence, but the artistic aesthetics of the texts.
Aksakov is the father of famous writers Konstantin, Ivan and Vera Aksakov
Many works also came from Aksakov’s pen. The most famous are “Notes of a Gun Hunter,” in which Russian landscapes are especially well described, and memoirs: “Family Chronicle,” “Childhood of Bagrov the Grandson,” “Literary and Theatrical Memoirs,” “Meetings with the Martinists.”
The famous literary critic began his career with the article “Literary Dreams. Elegy in prose”, which was published in several issues of “Rumor”. In this review, he outlined his ideal, sublime concept of literature and stated that in Russia there is “no literature,” but only a small circle of writers.
However, Belinsky became widely known while working at Otechestvennye Zapiski, where he was responsible for the critical department. For example, a journalist’s article about “Woe from Wit” is taught in some schools while studying the work of A.S. Griboedova.
Belinsky said that there is no literature in Russia
After Belinsky joined Otechestvennye Zapiski, the magazine reached a new level - it became one of the most popular in literature and the most anticipated. The critic masterfully exposed the falsehoods in works and demanded from writers a detailed depiction of life and reflection of its realities. “Freedom of creativity is easily consistent with the service of modernity,” - this quote perfectly characterizes the literary activity of Belinsky himself.
One of the most ardent opponents of serfdom began his literary activity in 1836: Herzen’s first article “Hoffmann” was published in the Telescope magazine under the pseudonym Iskander. Among his early publications, his articles denouncing supporters of quietism (an indifferent attitude to life) are especially interesting: “Amateurism in Science”, “Romantic Amateurs”, “A Workshop of Scientists”, “Buddhism in Science”, “Letters on the Study of Nature”. These works were published in the 1840s in Otechestvennye zapiski and Sovremennik.
In total, about 2000 pages of “The Bell” were published, Herzen wrote 1200 of them
However, Herzen’s most famous works are the story “The Thieving Magpie” about the oppression of the “serf intelligentsia” and the novel “Who is to Blame?”, which raises the problems of women’s position in marriage and family relationships.
There is a hypothesis that Herzen's literature gave impetus to the revolution. This idea is reflected in “The Ballad of Lack of Sleep” by Naum Krozhavin: “And Herzen slept, not knowing about the evil... but the Decembrists woke Herzen up. He didn't get enough sleep. It all went from there. And, stunned by their daring act, he raised a terrible ringing bell throughout the world.”
Herzen is also known as the publisher of the weekly newspaper “The Bell”: in total, about 2000 pages were published, of which Herzen himself wrote 1200.
Journalism is the art of words. The source material with which journalism operates is fact. Not a single serious article by the author is complete without reference to a fact. Thus, the fact represents the beginning of all beginnings.
Works fiction, primarily epic genres, represent a closed existence contained in the consciousness of the author. This imaginary world lives by its own laws, which most often reflect the laws of the environment. If a writer violates established literary etiquette, noticing the reader as an object of influence, appealing to him, trying to win him over, then we can talk about journalistic trends in artistic creativity.
The author's will in creating an image is found primarily in the repeated and careful selection of factors that carry knowledge about the hero and help build the core of character. In a journalistic work, the author acts as a bearer of a certain ideology. There is a certain link: author - hero - reader.
The author in journalism is identical to the personality of the publicist. He is not a fictitious person, he is real, well known to many readers, and enjoys their favor. It is especially important for the reader that the author-publicist is not only a bearer of certain ideas, but also one of us - simply a person with his own views, tastes and habits.
Styuflyaeva M.I. notes that the widespread and most visual form of expressing authorship in journalism is the designation of the presence of a journalist at the scene of an event.
The external signs of documentary evidence in the text are the indication of the place and time of what is happening, and the real names of people. But there are journalistic works that have no right to be denied documentary status.
In documentary journalism, qualitatively new connections between the author and the environment are established, and his relationships with the characters are enriched. The author and the hero first of all belong to the same world - the world of reality. The publicist is free to emphasize, explain, and highlight the most significant facts through the power of personal intervention.
The role of the image is significant, and, consequently, the publicist’s appeal to the subject of art, especially when writing an essay and feuilleton.
The image in journalism is rationally determined. Each small image is not accidental; it is connected with central, dominant images. The main and unique feature of a journalistic image is that it is generated by a thought, which it realizes, develops, clarifies, and helps its shades to appear.
“Publicism mainly exploits factual images. The fact-image arises and functions in accordance with artistic laws and at the same time carries the characteristics of a fact as an epistemological category. This means that a fact has a certain extent in time and space, that it is not a point, but a segment of reality. Secondary facts or, more precisely, facts of secondary use can act as image facts. A publicist does not have to rely only on his own observations; he can highlight invaluable material in the press, found in archives and documents.”
Journalism as a type of literature has retained its basic features for centuries. However, time makes serious changes in the nature of the functioning of journalistic works. The instability of the social situation of the period we are experiencing has an important influence on journalism, its speech appearance, stylistic aspirations, and language.
It is well known that language is created according to human standards. Language responds to the needs of society, verbally expressing new ideas, thoughts, and knowledge. Thus, using special vocabulary, the language reflects the religious-mythological, philosophical, scientific, artistic, journalistic picture of the world.
What is the modern journalistic picture of the world? The author’s problem is one of the main ones both for the formation of a journalistic picture of the world, and for identifying the nature of her speech, for the formation of newspaper and journalistic genres. The author of a journalistic work is always a genuine, living, specific person with a certain worldview, life experience, thoughts, feelings, etc. He speaks on his own behalf, expresses his feelings and opinions, which creates a special feeling of intimacy and trust on the part of the reader. Therefore, a journalistic work is usually subjectively colored. At the same time, the palette of feelings and colors is very diverse - from a dry listing of facts to pathos and pathos.
Therefore, it is important to note such an element of a journalistic text as confession. The author expresses his thoughts and feelings in the hope that the reader will share them. An emphatically personal character, emotionality, and openness distinguish the journalistic approach to the world. The special nature of journalism also gives rise to such quality of its texts as documentary quality. The publicist is characterized by dynamism and immediate perception.
On the other hand, the author of a journalistic work is vested with social and moral responsibility. It fulfills a specific social mission (news reporting, education, entertainment, persuasion, etc.). Since the journalistic text is addressed to a more or less wide audience, the author seeks to expand the fund of knowledge, influence the formation of opinions and express the attitudes of that social group which he represents. Hence the author’s desire for objectivity of information.
For the formation of a journalistic picture of the world, the sociality of the journalistic text is of paramount importance, determining, first of all, a social approach to the world. The author's task is to correlate realities with social interests and goals. And the overall picture of the world created by almost all publicists is, first of all, a social (socio-political, socio-ideological, etc.) picture. Its main question is the life of the individual in society. The main expression of this approach of journalism to the world can be considered social evaluation. It actively manifests itself in language in the formation of types of evaluative vocabulary.
In the genres of modern journalism, one can note a sharply increasing personal tendency. The position of a journalist is the position of a person observing, thinking, evaluating. The personal tendency, as well as the tendency to increase information content, determines the active process of the formation of new genres.
Now the scope of assessment is narrowing compared to the previous period. However, its important role in the language of journalism remains. As a unique means of indirect assessment, irony and its extreme expression - clownish sarcasm - are becoming widespread. Sarcasm in this case is not only a stylistic manner, but also a certain worldview, or rather, the absence of ideological positions, when everything and everyone is ridiculed, when in a dashing, rollicking style they write about politics, disasters, murders - about the most serious things that have no bearing on for a joke or laughter. Perhaps this style is a kind of reflection current state a society with its ideological confusion, a society in which old ideals have sunk into oblivion and new ones have not yet been formulated. But regardless of the reasons for its appearance, such sarcasm is negative both in content and form. It impoverishes speech, fosters bad taste, apoliticality, and aggressiveness.
So, evaluativeness as the most important quality of the language of journalism, reflecting the social-evaluative attitude of the author of a journalistic text to the world, is preserved, but under the influence of social circumstances it takes on slightly different forms. It is the social-evaluative approach to reality that is important in the organic genres of journalism, the theory of argumentation, polemics, the interest in which is last years has intensified significantly.
Thus, social person and a private person are the two most important facets of a journalistic author. Between them there are a variety of intermediate varieties - from the purely particular, concrete to the most analytical, abstract. In general, the journalistic picture of the world represents the unity of the facets described above.
For full characteristics the subject of the journalistic picture of the world must be analyzed and the addressee. The subject exists only because there is an addressee - reader, listener, viewer. Without a perceiver, journalistic speech becomes meaningless and ceases to exist. The main feature of the audience that influences the journalistic subject is its breadth and heterogeneity. A journalistic work can also be designed for a homogeneous reader. However, the essence of the problem remains the same - to interest as many readers as possible with different tastes, levels of education, etc.
The addressee is no less interesting as the object of the image. Journalism is interested in a person as a representative of society, government, the crowd, etc. In that fundamental difference journalism from fiction. Journalism is looking for a typical person among real people, highlighting certain of his features as general, typical, while at the same time preserving at least some individual traits and signs. A single specific person is presented in real life circumstances. The author's choice is limited by reality, for example, extreme situations in the hero's life or, on the contrary, the most everyday ones. Thus, the publicist achieves authenticity and documentation of what is depicted and described. This is the specificity of journalism, its strength and expressiveness. And hence the reader’s attitude towards a journalistic work is different, compared to a literary work.
A journalistic work is not only life-like, it is part of our life. It is directly included in social reality and participates in it. Fiction and journalism ultimately have the same image object - a person, but the goals and approach are fundamentally different. The journalistic canon of depicting a person is a real person in real circumstances. Such a journalistic approach in no way excludes bright artistic colors, even flights of fancy. But all this is limited by reality and determined by the subjective vision of the author.
Circumstances are the broad background against which a person acts, social or private. This is politics, ideology, sociology, environment, power, public opinion - everything that can be called social life. This is the space of a journalistic picture of the world, those social spheres, in which the subject acts. This should also include a fundamentally unlimited, all-encompassing topic taken in its social aspect. On this basis, the journalistic picture of the world is almost no different from the artistic one. However, the task of image in journalism is secondary, subordinate to thought.
Time, unlike fiction, is genuine, real, coinciding, as a rule, with historical time. And this strengthens such an important feature of journalism as documentation. Indicative in this regard is the almost obligatory rule of reporting the source of information. However, the problem of time in journalism is just beginning to be studied. It is interesting, for example, to study the functioning of time in various genres of journalism.
Special mention should be made about information. The opinion of researchers who consider information as a special substyle within the newspaper and journalistic style is correct. In general, information, while maintaining documentation, is characterized by a lesser degree of evaluation. Much in this sense depends on the editorial policy and stylistic aspirations of the authors. However, evaluativeness in information does not disappear completely, but takes on more subtle, hidden forms.
This tendency is also characteristic of the journalistic variety of newspaper-journalistic style. “Publicistic speech is fundamentally single-layered, monological, which is associated with its subjectivity, personality, and evaluativeness. It seems that expressive journalistic speech has a more subtle and universal character.”
The article provides a comparative analysis of literature and journalism. Based on the study of the object, subject, methods of creative activity and showing the relationship of literature and journalism to the audience, the specific features of these areas of creativity are revealed. It is argued that if the main goal of literature is the artistic and aesthetic reflection of reality and the spiritual world of the writer, then for journalism it is a demonstration of specific social problems and a direct call to action.
Keywords: journalism, journalism, method, style, genres
For some reason, it has become good form to believe that in the information age, in the times of the Internet and new media, journalism has lost its relevance. We can partially agree with this if we are talking about the former importance of journalism (Yuri Zhukov, Valentin Zorin, Anatoly Agranovsky). However, from the point of view of the phenomenon of journalism as a form public life, this is wrong. As Professor Ya.N. has repeatedly written. Zasursky [Zasoursky, 2008; Zasursky, 2009, etc.], content has at all times been the most important, fundamental category of literary and journalistic creativity and will remain so as long as these areas of activity exist. We join this opinion.
Despite the fact that, thanks to modern information and communication technologies, the amount of information in the modern world has increased sharply, nevertheless, there is a certain conflict, manifested in its obvious deficit. The authors of the book “Towards a Mobile Society: Utopias and Reality” write about this: “According to Nobel laureate, economist Herbert Simon, today's information destroys and eats up the attention of its consumers (recipients). Scientists talk about the information and communication paradox: a lot of information - little information. In such conditions, technologies for the production and dissemination of information are useless... In conditions of the information paradox, there is an overload of information, and therefore there is a deficit of attention. An array of Internet sites, a huge number of satellite and cable TV channels, which, as a rule, can be selected using the remote control, generally do not allow a person to concentrate on something specific.” We believe that journalism is precisely the means that allows one to overcome this alienation and help the audience focus their attention on one thing.
Let’s begin our consideration of the problem posed in the article by clarifying the basic concepts from which the author starts. This need is due to the fact that some researchers quite easily project the theory of journalism onto the theory of journalism and vice versa, while there are serious differences between them. First of all, let us comment on several fundamental terms that are directly related to the issue under study.
Communication, literature, journalism, journalism
The broadest among them will be the concept of communication. Broadly speaking, communication can be considered any form of relationship between two or more objects. Communication of conscious beings is the exchange of signals between people using words, intonation or movement. Here it is necessary to specify a very significant detail - communication can be carried out both with the participation of consciousness and with the help of the unconscious, or, most likely, both together. In a developed society, communication is also carried out through the transfer of works of different types of creativity, including literature, journalism, and journalism. This gives grounds to talk about them as varieties of social communication.
Elements of such an outstanding form of social communication as literature, including its primitive forms in the form of rock inscriptions and oral traditions, have been present in the human community since the advent of rational man. For many millennia, literature existed in oral form, in the form of pictograms, inscriptions, drawings on leaves, etc.
With the invention of the alphabet and the coherent presentation of text based on it, written literature and journalism appeared. The first literary monument that has survived to this day is the “Poem of Gilgamesh”, which arose five thousand years ago in the East, partially containing dialogues of a journalistic nature.
In the ancient world, laconic Latin sayings filled with a journalistic spirit were popular: “Sauve locus resonat voci conclusus” (“For in a closed place the bells ring their voice”) or “Fata viam inveniunt” (“Fate moves us”).”
Today, literary communication has developed into a large, large-scale channel of human creativity, or rather, into a great life event. Modern literature is capable of depicting life in all its details, from planetary canvases to details, in various traditions and from an unimaginable number of perspectives - classical, modernist and postmodernist. To do this, she has a large set of inherent expressive means - logical, emotional, artistic.
Journalism. The word “journalism” has seven main meanings [Prokhorov, 2005]. Firstly, this is a socio-political activity for the collection, processing, distribution and storage of socially important mass media. Secondly, this is a set of professions of people involved in the preparation of operational materials for mass media (QMS) - editor, head of department, executive secretary, correspondent, issuer, etc. Thirdly, these are purposefully prepared for newspapers and magazines, radio and television materials in a certain genre: note, report, report, interview, correspondence, article, review, essay, feuilleton, etc. Fourthly, this is a set of mass communication channels - newspapers, magazines, weeklies, digests, radio, television, the Internet. The fifth meaning (the broadest, combining the previous four directions) and, in our opinion, the most significant for the audience is the perception of journalism as a social institution of society.
In addition, there are two more understandings of the word “journalism”: as a specialty higher education and directions in the nomenclature of specialties of scientific workers, i.e. areas where candidates and doctors of science are trained.
Journalism. There has been debate for a long time about what journalism is. A fruitful discussion on this topic took place among scientists at the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow, and then at other universities in the former Soviet country in the second half of the 60s - the first half of the 70s. XX century During the meeting, different opinions were expressed about journalism. V.M. Gorokhov considers journalism to be a specific area of socio-political activity, pursuing the goal of actual political influence on the masses. IN AND. Zdorovega concludes that journalism is a work in which current facts and phenomena are quickly researched and summarized in order to influence public opinion, public consciousness and provide certain social and practical assistance to those to whom the author addresses. G.V. Kolosov and E.A. Khudyakova completes her thoughts on journalism in the following way: “So, in the light of all that has been said, journalism is, first of all, creativity, a process of reflecting current reality that is constantly developing under the influence of social practice, a special flow of information (“history of modern times”). This is a reflection..., which is imprinted in empirical facts and reasoning, in concepts, ideas, journalistic images, hypotheses, which make it possible to analyze current events from a political angle, quickly evaluate them and, thus, express and shape public opinion and through it to influence public consciousness and the development of all practical activities of people" [Kolosov, Khudyakova, 1984, p. 14-15]. V.V. Uchenova notes that journalism is a type of mass political propaganda where informational content is combined with emotional expressiveness, where accuracy in conveying real events is combined with the political acuity of commentary thoughts and the expressiveness of the author’s attitude to what is happening [Uchenova, 1979].
V.N. Fominykh was one of the first to draw attention to the three-valued nature of the term “journalism”. He believes that the predominant one among them is the understanding of journalism as a special kind of creativity with its own laws - a live response to specific facts and events, phenomena and processes of social life [Fominykh, 1980, p. 69]. Controversy between Moscow State University professors E.P. Prokhorov and A.G. Bocharov in this regard became decisive (we mean, first of all, the article by A.G. Bocharov “Don’t create a homunculus for yourself”) [Bocharov, 1968].
Associate Professor of Moscow State University G.V. Lazutina views journalism as a type of creativity that is not confined to a professional framework and serves as a means for members of society to realize their civic mission. Classifying products entering mass information flows according to their purpose and functional orientation, she identifies seven groups of texts and writes regarding one of them: “The third consists of materials introducing different opinions about current events and problems of concern to society - journalistic speeches of politicians, scientists, writers, journalists, and other socially active citizens, dedicated to the topic of the day" [Lazutina, 2010, p. 40-42].
In general, the opinions of experts on journalism can be grouped into five groups. Firstly, this is one of the directions of literature. This view is inherent, first of all, to representatives of literary criticism. Secondly, this is one of the areas of journalism; there is even a special group of artistic and journalistic genres: sketch, essay, feuilleton, pamphlet, fable, parody, epigram. This opinion is shared by many journalism experts. Thirdly, journalism is a special type of creativity. This position is typical of those who try to remain independent of the first two groups. Thus, this idea was dominant in the book of E.P. Prokhorov “Publicist and Reality” [Prokhorov, 1973]. The fourth group of specialists believes that journalism is texts of works prepared in a certain language and style, possessing mobilizing specifics and intended for a mass audience. V.V. Uchenova writes about this: “Publicism should be understood as mass popular political texts that influence current socio-political processes through operational documentary representation based on their ideological and political understanding and emotionally expressed assessment” [Uchenova, 1979, p. 230].
Finally, the fifth opinion is widespread among writers and poets of Uzbekistan. According to their assessments, journalism is a “lightweight” form of creative activity, when a writer takes a break from the labors of the righteous, creating light journalistic works after or in between serious novels and poems. This is also explained by the fact that most editors of newspapers and magazines in Uzbekistan and Karakalpakstan are traditionally writers and poets.
Let us give our definition of journalism. We believe that journalism is a type of creative activity that is open for familiarization and discussion of the topic posed by the author, in which the author’s civic position is embodied and which is translated into newspaper, magazine and other types of operational texts devoted to current socio-political facts and processes and containing both convincing logical and conceptual means, as well as a special emotional and stylistic form.
Scientific and creative directions in literature and journalism
The life and thinking of people are reflected and manifested in various forms, types and genres of fiction. These trends are reflected in two major literary movements: traditional (classical) and non-traditional (postclassical).
Classical schools and movements include classicism (France, 17th century), sentimentalism (Great Britain, 18th century), romanticism ( Western Europe, beginning of the 19th century: F. Novalis, J. Byron, P. Shelley), critical realism (Europe, 19th century: O. de Balzac, G. Flaubert, C. Dickens. N. Gogol). We will not dwell further on these trends, familiar to every literary critic and publicist.
Postclassical (neoclassical) movements include modernism, surrealism, postmodernism, etc.
Modernism late XIX- beginning of the 20th century He showed himself most clearly in art, in particular in fiction. Its founders or prominent representatives were T. Elliot, J. Joyce, G. Stein, W. Wulf. Modernism sharply denied the forms, types and methods of assessment contained in previous creative forms, he contributed to the search for both original thoughts and new means of expression.
Surrealists are authors who try to comprehend absolute reality and strive to realize it in their work. The movement developed during the period between the First and Second World Wars; its founder was the poet A. Breton.
Postmodernism is such a complex, multidimensional type of creativity and literary direction, which is impossible to name any single writer as its founder. The term appears for the first time in the book by R. Ranwitz “Crisis European culture"(1917). F. de Onis used the word “postmodernism” in 1934 to characterize the activities of poets who were part of the avant-garde movement and sharply rejected the literary traditions that existed before them. Subsequently, the concept was significantly enriched by the historian A. Toynbee, philosopher J. Lyotard and others.
Of course, creative trends in fiction consist not only of those listed above. But we cannot delve into this matter further. Our task is to compare literature and journalism, identifying the common and special features between them. As can be seen from what has just been stated, journalism is quite far from the listed areas. Of course, a journalistic work can be performed using the methods of classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism or critical realism. However, due to the nature of journalism as a social event and need, these methods cannot become dominant in such speeches, as is quite realistic for works of fiction, because the purpose, objectives and methods of creating journalistic works are different.
Even further from the nature and objectives of a journalistic work, in comparison with classical movements, are modernism, surrealism and postmodernism. As is known, representatives of these movements perceive and express their attitude to reality from very unique positions. Such approaches and characteristics differ markedly from even the most modern journalistic assessments of reality. Therefore, the object, subject, goal and objectives of modern journalism are noticeably different from the object and subject of neoclassical movements in literature. Because its very social purpose is different. The purpose of journalism is awakening social thought, uniting people around the idea covered in the article, forming public opinion in accordance with this idea, mobilizing the audience to perform certain tasks, creating from it a single, purposeful mass of people organized for the implementation of a specific social program.
In a word, if you compare journalism and journalistic works with the results of artistic creations made in the style of the above mentioned literary movements that dominated in different centuries, then the historical, theoretical and classification difference between literature and journalism inevitably strikes the eye. Publicistic speeches from antiquity to the present - in style and methods of their appearance, in the ways of influencing a mass audience - are very close to each other, while literary works of the same time differ greatly from each other, and sometimes even completely deny each other.
Traditions of creativity in literature and journalism
It is quite important to clarify the question of the relationship of literature and journalism to the creative traditions of their fields. From the above it follows that the fundamental negation of previous traditions is the main way of development of a new direction in literature. There were many writers who were calm about the fact that those around them did not understand them. They hoped that if not their contemporaries, then their descendants would understand them, as in fact happened. For example, some writers were expelled from their homeland for their works (the Italian poet Dante, the Karakalpak poet Ajiniyaz), and others were punished with death (the Sufi poet Mashrab). Several centuries later, these same people were proclaimed national heroes. In short, we can recall many writers whose works were not recognized by their contemporaries, but after a certain time became bright works of national and world literature, and the writers themselves became the pride of their people (M. Cervantes, “Don Quixote”; M. Bulgakov, “ Master and Margarita").
This version of events is completely unacceptable for journalism. Journalistic works include specific political, socio-economic, national and environmental issues of a given time and a particular society, in contrast to works of fiction, which provide a broader socio-political and moral panorama. For a publicist, it is important that his work is understood by his contemporaries, because it is intended for them and is prepared for a specific purpose - to arouse in people a spirit of like-mindedness with the publicist, to contribute to the development of a certain life position, and to mobilize for specific actions. A publicist works for today, while a writer is focused on the future. A writer can deny the traditions and principles of literary creativity that existed before him, moreover, he consciously strives for this. For a publicist, this is an unacceptable path; he must adhere to the traditions of journalism that have proven themselves for his contemporaries, otherwise his work will not be quickly understood and it may not cause the immediate public resonance he desires. Therefore, the fundamental condition for the success of a journalistic speech is the relevance of the problem raised by the author in accordance with the customs and traditions accepted in a given society. It is very important for a publicist to create a work in harmonious combination with the contemporary social mood, the moral uplift of the people, their social spirit and vitality.
The impossibility of literature to limit itself to a national framework is due to the existence of a system of fundamental social guidelines - universal human values. Talented poets and writers aim their works at a wider audience than their local society, thereby overcoming national boundaries and operating with universal categories of values. A real writer explains not only national, but also universal human values, combining the first and second into a single, harmonious, artistic canvas. As a result, creations prepared for a wide range of people become artistic and aesthetic events of worldwide significance, transforming into literary classics. From such artistic episodes-works the literature of the peoples of the world was formed.
World literature has become the first spiritual refuge, or rather, a moral stronghold that brings people together different countries and continents. In the millennia-long history of mankind, there have been many attempts to unite peoples through military, political and economic means. However, they did not give the desired result. Great commanders (Macedonian, Genghis Khan, Temur) created large empires, but they all collapsed after their death. However, the world-famous “Iliad” and “Shahname”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host” and “Paradise Lost” successfully convey from century to century the national and universal values, literary and aesthetic traditions glorified in them. They have long crossed national borders and become a universal property.
Object and subject of journalism and literature
The object of literature is reality: nature, man, consciousness. A writer's reflection of reality is a very broad, meaningful and contradictory process. The ways, forms and methods of studying existence and reflecting it in a work of art depend on the worldview and position of the writer. In turn, the newer, more unconventional, and more unexpected the writer’s approach, the more original the work he creates will be (we are not talking about the writer’s talent here, its presence is implied by itself).
At the same time, it is quite difficult to clearly and clearly imagine the object and subject, the problem and methods of literature. These categories are so complex and limitless that they cannot be fully researched. What is the object and subject, the reflected problem and the author’s method of such world-famous works as “Oedipus the King”, “The Decameron” or “Gargantua and Pantagruel”? Is there even an answer to this question?!...
Of course, in general terms we can say that the subject of fiction is the problems of life, well summarized by Hamlet in his famous “To be or not to be?” At the same time, how to answer the question, what is the subject of most works that have become traditional or modern classics? For example, what is the subject of works
Isaac Asimov or Alexander Belyaev? What about “Tristan and Isolde”, “The Forsyte Saga” or “The Golden Calf”? As you can see, this is a rather complex question. The problem under discussion is so limitless that it is impossible to find an answer to it within the limits of the theory of literature known to us (journalism, aesthetics, politics) or any generally accepted professional criteria.
As for a journalistic work, here the object and subject are completely specific. The object of journalism is a branch of life, the activity of a ministry, enterprise or institution, a life episode or a fact that exists in society and has become the sphere of study of the journalist. Subject - social problems that concern large groups people, social reasons that became the reason for this event to take place and the journalism reflecting it. The subject of a journalistic speech can be a specific economic, cultural or environmental issue. True, these are facts of the first plan, information, events or processes that immediately catch the eye. In fact, their fundamental basis, as a rule, lies in the problems of managing a society, industry or enterprise, or more precisely, the shortcomings of the style of such management.
In a journalistic work, another issue (or social problem) may sometimes be present as its subject in the background, but there is no third or fourth plan. Because journalism is predominantly a one-dimensional, straightforward activity that requires a specific presentation of the issue and the presentation of real ways to solve it. The tasks of a journalistic speech require quick and correct solution, this is the decisive prerequisite for their effectiveness and efficiency. As for the possibilities and the meanings behind them in a literary work, they are limitless, immeasurably deep and do not require immediate implementation.
Literature and journalism are panoramas of human life and thought, but each in its own way. In literature, the ideal, the beautiful, and aesthetics predominate. Journalism is strong in emotions, social significance and relevance.
Literature, literary process, artistic essay- very capacious concepts. There is special journalism that explains literary creativity (articles by V. Belinsky or D. Pisarev). But there are no works of fiction that explain journalistic works, unless the journalistic speech served as the reason for the creation of a specific work of fiction. The topic of a journalistic speech, in comparison with a work of art or literature in general, is much narrower and has a specific stated task. For example, journalism helps to clarify the ideas of a literary work, draws the attention of literary critics and the public to them.
In particular, the subject of the widely known article by the talented publicist of Uzbekistan and Karakalpakstan Urazbai Abdurakhmanov “The Aral: in front of the white wall” is the drying up Aral Sea, the subject is the problems associated with this environmental disaster: the inefficient use of irrigation water, the extermination of flora and fauna in the delta of the Amu Darya River , the destruction of saigas because of their horns and, as a common denominator, the irresponsible attitude of people towards this current crisis. It is not without reason that at the VIII Forum of Creative and Scientific Intelligentsia of the CIS Countries in September 2013, it was noted that the leading role in journalistic works on environmental topics should be occupied not so much by descriptions of the consequences of environmental disasters, but by educating the CIS population of environmental consciousness.
The relationship of journalism and literature to its audience
This attitude varies widely. The concept of an artistic composition conventionally looks like this: following diagram: writer - reality - work of art - audience. The concept of a journalistic speech is somewhat different: publicist - problem - work - audience. The method of all publicists is the same - a call to action. As for writers, each of them has his own style to represent a particular social panorama in a particular work, and it is this style that recommends him to the masses as an original, distinctive author. Such styles are sometimes strikingly different from each other. A writer who cannot find his own style and repeats other authors here is doomed to failure. At the same time, all publicists use a similar method - this is an appeal to the audience through coverage of a current social problem. The writer educates his audience, the publicist mobilizes it.
Literature is a reflection of the philosophy of life in the form of the art of words and artistic aesthetics. Journalism is the transformation of real life practice, a call to action by the method of actualizing a problem, the organization of a mass socio-political movement by attracting public attention to topical issues day, protecting the interests of specific layers and groups inhabiting a given society. Literature fulfills a long-term task - it strives to raise the general cultural and aesthetic level of the audience; it is a kind of spiritual investment for decades and centuries. Journalism fights for today's interests of people.
Literature is the territory of subtle feelings. Publicism, in comparison, is somewhat pathetic and, since it uses direct appeals, looks more straightforward, if not ruder. It has a specific goal - to involve a wide audience in discussing the problem of the article. Journalistic creativity is designed for large masses of people, and therefore contains direct appeals and assessments, sometimes quite harsh. An artistic creation, saturated with mysterious labyrinths of the author’s thought, deeply drawn sketches, and prescribed contours of an aesthetic reflection of reality, lives for many centuries and each new generation discovers in it its own layer of images and values.
A journalistic speech is striking due to the operational relevance of the problems being reflected; over time, the level of this relevance decreases or disappears altogether. “Paradise Lost” by John Milton still amazes people today with its significance and grandeur, while “Areopagitica” by the same author is not so relevant, since the issue of freedom of the press raised in it has already been resolved in many countries. Literature is a smoothly flowing, wide and deep river. Journalism is a mountain river that noisily rushes through drops and rapids, but this is precisely why it attracts attention. If the writer proceeds from reality and his own feelings, then the publicist is more focused on the topic and public interest. If the goal of a writer is to reflect the panorama of life, then the goal of a publicist is to awaken public consciousness, mobilize the thoughts and movement of people in a certain direction.
The writer's audience, as a rule, is narrow and specialized. Not all people can easily read and quickly understand a literary essay. Therefore, there is a difference in what age a person reads a writer’s work, young or mature. Each age gives its own perception: with the acquisition of life experience, the same episodes of a work of art can give completely different sensations.
Each reader of a work of art finds in it a meaning that corresponds to his character, worldview, and experience. Journalism is not satisfied with such pluralism of opinions. She needs everyone to understand her equally, otherwise journalism will not be able to unite various social strata, the general public, and thereby fulfill its main social function - to mobilize people to accomplish a certain social task.
Genres in literature and journalism
Another opportunity to better understand the similarities and differences between literature and journalism is to compare them in terms of the genres they use. The convenience of this lies in the fact that sometimes it is difficult to comprehend the ideas, methods, principles, functions, position of the author, while genres are understandable to everyone, their classification and understanding, as a rule, do not raise objections.
It is known that genre (along with language and style) is one of the manifestations of the form of a work. It is the opportunity and privilege of artistic compositions to have a wide range of forms, from simple to intricate. This is impossible in journalism. Publicistic speech does not tolerate a polysyllabic form, which in this version will take a long time to decipher for the mass audience. In this case, the author will not achieve his goal main goal- prompt mobilization of its readers. The audience has neither the opportunity nor the desire to read and re-read a journalistic article, identifying more and more new meanings in it. Actually, the publicist does not plan such an attitude towards his article.
A classical literary work always has a complex structure. Multi-layered storytelling, aesthetically justified direct and indirect reflection of many interpretations, encryption of perspective meanings - all these are important factors in creating a real artistic creation. Over time, each successive generation reveals more and more new semantic layers of such a work, which allows the latter to remain among the ranks of classics.
Journalism cannot exist in this form; its articles do not tolerate a complex structure. It is more important for the author that the reader understands him here and now. Therefore, a journalistic essay has a simple, transparent, very clear structure. However, this does not mean at all that the content of journalism can be superficial. Superficiality must be excluded from any work of any time. The content of journalism should be simple and easily perceived because it is intended for simultaneous and unambiguous understanding by large masses of people.
Consequently, the genre performance of the two types of creativity differs markedly from each other. Let's look at this with specific examples.
Literature is traditionally divided into epic, lyric and drama. All three types artistic creativity contain multi-level internal classifications, each of which has a lot of scientific research.
The novel, which belongs to epic prose, is divided into a number of types: epic, psychological, philosophical, fantastic, satirical, adventure, historical, etc. The story and short story also have a detailed classification. Every the new kind lyrical creativity attracts more and more generations of researchers. Although drama has existed for more than one millennium, experts have not yet come to a common opinion regarding its genre differentiation.
Journalistic works do not have such a rich genre variety; it is difficult for them to become, for example, adventure or fantasy. Such speeches differ from each other more in the topic of work: political journalism, economic, environmental, military, etc.
If we delve into the evolution of genres of journalistic works and characterize the situation with genres in the most general form, it turns out that for a long time a number of researchers considered journalism to be a separate genre of journalistic (literary) creativity. As Professor F.A. writes Muminov, this approach has no prospects; journalism should be considered more as the quality of a work than its form [Muminov, 1998].
In short, we can assume that the word “genre” is not very suitable for journalism. Her works are not divided into genres, or, in other words, there are no actual journalistic genres as such. There is a group of artistic and journalistic genres, which includes the sketch, essay, feuilleton, pamphlet, fable, etc., this is true. But these are not genres of journalism in their pure form, but genres of journalism from the point of view of their journalistic intensity.
To clarify the relationship between the content of journalism and its genres, attention should be paid to two important features. Firstly, journalism can be divided into areas (political, economic, etc.), but it cannot be divided into genres unique to it. Secondly, although the first two groups of journalism genres are not called journalistic, this does not mean, for example, that a report and interview (from the first, informational group) or correspondence and an article (from the second, analytical group) do not contain journalism, it is here present and often in a significant form. Moreover, the article is the main journalistic genre. It all depends on how the author approaches the coverage of the chosen topic, using what methods and how he solves the questions posed. Elements of journalism, in direct or indirect form, can be present in any genre of journalism, if only the author implements the task set for himself accordingly.
Literary traditions of peoples Central Asia show that journalism is an integral part of not only journalism, but also works of art. There is no doubt that the novels of Abdulla Kadyri and Tulepbergen Kaipbergen, Chingiz Aitmatov and Mukhtar Auezov, many poems of Ibraim Yusupov and Abdulla Aripov are full of high journalism. This is due both to national literary customs and to the unique creative abilities of the mentioned writers. Authors often weave poetry into the artistic fabric of novels, stories and short stories, which is also a local centuries-old tradition. In recent years, the creation of journalistic essays, which are also not included in the traditional classification of journalism genres, has been gaining momentum.
The time has come to speak out on one of the main controversial issues of the modern literary process. It's about about the attribution of a particular work to a particular genre. Many experts believe (and there is a great deal of truth in this) that the theory of genres in literature and journalism has been developed quite thoroughly, so it is not difficult for a critic to assign a particular work the genre name in which it is written. No serious questions arise here until the author himself intervenes in the matter. The situation becomes dramatically more complicated when a writer calls his work a certain genre that does not fit the given work according to traditional classification criteria. In Russian literature, an example of this is the book “ Dead Souls» N.V. Gogol, which is assessed by literary critics as a novel, but which the author himself called as a poem. Karakalpak writer Urazbay Abdurakhmanov called his book “Threshold” (“Busaga”) a novel, while there are national critics who deny the legitimacy of such a classification.
In our opinion, the right of a writer to attribute his work to one genre or another is his absolute privilege, which no one can and should not challenge. The author is the only person who knows fully and in detail why and how the work was written, what goals and objectives it is dedicated to, what was and was not achieved in the work. If the originality of Michel Montaigne, who published his Essays in a genre completely unexpected for his contemporaries, had been ignored, then humanity could have lost, or at least underestimated, such a magnificent artistic and journalistic genre as the essay.
In addition, a real writer always tries to create an original work that is not similar to the works of other authors. This is his creative meta-task. As a result, he overcomes frozen standards, old stereotypes, and is obsessed with the idea of saying a new word, achieving his original goal. At such times, he often does not pay attention to the political guidelines of our time, the moral and psychological situation in society, monetary interests or personal authority. But, at the same time, the author’s maximum personal dedication to the goals and objectives of the composition is sometimes the most likely way to create an immortal creation.
A critic can give a work the ratings that he considers necessary. The writer has the right to accept or not accept the critic’s opinion. Each party approaches the publication based on its understanding of life, profession, goals and objectives, level of knowledge, aesthetic preparedness, accumulated experience, etc. However, if a literary critic is faced with the task of evaluating a work based on generally accepted principles, then the writer’s maximal task is to create a work that will last for centuries, unlike other works.
Of course, when a literary critic approaches a work from a generally accepted (general aesthetic, general theoretical) point of view, he thereby puts the writer in a difficult position. Especially if an original creation is created. But serious writers are no strangers to this. They go to great lengths today so that their work can be understood and become one of the classics tomorrow. In a word, one cannot doubt the right of a writer to designate the genre of his work, because this is his work and he knows and understands it better than others.
Journalism in journalistic works and journalisticism of artistic works
It would not be an exaggeration to call journalism the general, “end-to-end” quality of many works published within the literary or journalistic tradition. In one form or another, journalism is present wherever there is an interested presentation of the material, which is quite typical, for example, for a political, ideological, national or other biased approach to the problem under consideration. Therefore, N.I. is right. Klushina, when she writes: “...A text on any topic is journalistic if it is characterized by a political-ideological mode of formulating the text. Therefore, it is quite reasonable that “political-ideological activity is considered in functional stylistics as the extralinguistic basis of a journalistic style... Researchers, based on the position that “journalism and politics, being independent phenomena, turn out to be connected historically and functionally... , believe that journalistic activity is aimed primarily at solving political and ideological problems...” [Klushina, 2008, p. 36].
In principle, it is impossible to fully understand and exhaustively characterize the relationship between literature and journalism because these are two related social phenomena, mutually transforming processes into each other. But journalism is not, as some writers (and there are many of them) think, “light” literature. That's right, in terms of volume, a journalistic work is, as a rule, much smaller than a literary work. But in this case, volume cannot serve as an evaluation criterion creative work. Often, a few pages of text or one painting by an artist can provide more knowledge and food for thought than entire volumes of empty literature. In artistic and journalistic activity, what is important is the method of realizing the creative goals set by the authors, and not anything else.
From the above comparisons and comments, it becomes clear that literature and journalism chosen as the objects of this article are spheres of creativity that are close to each other. Both reflect real life, explore social issues and are intended for a large audience. Both are the art of words, calling people to follow certain ideas and actions. Their place in educational and educational work with the masses is invaluable.
At the same time, it should be said that although literature and journalism have a lot in common, there are also serious differences between them, which we tried to show in the article. Let's move on to the conclusions. The main task now is to bring both concepts to a single denominator without compromising each of them.
In our opinion, optimal solution The question is to distinguish between the journalism of journalistic works and the journalisticism of artistic works. If a journalistic work is strong in its presentation of a social problem and relevance, then an artistic creation is strong in its journalistic nature and thereby attracts the attention of the general public. The aesthetic and educational significance of a literary work is not immediately apparent. The journalistic style, on the contrary, can be bright; to a large extent, it is like a magnet that immediately attracts the mass reader, a key that allows him to delve into the secrets of artistic composition.
The works of Chingiz Aitmatov and Tulepbergen Kaipbergenov are not journalistic works, but they have a powerful journalistic charge. This spirit, along with the author’s idea and system of images, is generally one of strengths many classic novels and stories. Publicism of works of art, attracting the attention of the audience to them, ensures the delivery of their ideas to the general public. The author's journalistic position, using its own specifics, better conveys his ideas to a large audience and serves as a means of creating a bewitching pathos of the work. Therefore, journalisticism, a journalistic spirit are needed like air in a literary work - a classic creation of a writer cannot take place and live without pathos.
Journalism is natural for every serious literary work. Artistic perfection suits true journalism. If a work of art is relevant for its journalistic nature, then journalism is attractive for its artistry.
Bibliography
Abdurakhmanov U. Orol: oppok; devor oldida... (Aral: in front of a white wall) // U. Abdurakhmanov. K^oratsalpok; Dunesi (World of Karakalpakstan). Journalism, essay va htskoyalar (Publicism, essays, stories). Tashkent: Publishing House of the National Library named after Navoi, 2011 (in Uzbek).
Bocharov A.G. Don’t create a homunculus for yourself // Vestn. Moscow un-ta. Ser. 10. Journalism. 1968. No. 5.
History of printing. Anthology. T. III / Comp., preface. and comment. Ya.N. Zasursky, O.A. Bakulina. M.: Aspect Press, 2008.
Towards a mobile society: utopias and reality / Ed. Ya.N. Zasursky. M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 2009.
Klushina N.I. Stylistics of journalistic text. M.: MediaMir, 2008.
Kolosov G.V., Khudyakova E.A. Journalistic creative process (general model of journalistic creativity). Voronezh: Voronezh Publishing House, University, 1984.
Lazutina G.V. Fundamentals of creative activity of a journalist: Textbook. for students universities 2nd ed., revised. and additional M.: Aspect Press, 2010.
Muminov F.A. Journalism izhtimoi institute sifatida (Journalism as a social institution of society). Tashkent: Tashkent State University, 1998 (in Uzbek).
Prokhorov E.P. Introduction to Journalism. 5th ed. M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 2005.
Prokhorov E.P. Publicist and reality. M., 1973.
Pruttskov G.G. History of world journalism. Educational and methodological kit. M.: Aspect Press, 2010.
Uchenova V.V. Journalism and politics. 2nd ed. M.: Politizdat, 1979.
Uchenova V.V. At the origins of journalism. M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1984.
Fominykh V.N. On the debate about journalism (about the three-valued meaning of the term “journalism”) // Journalism of developed socialism. Sverdlovsk, 1980.
Received by the editor 08/20/2013
Towards a mobile society: utopias and reality / Ed. Ya.N. Zasursky. M.: Publishing house Mosk. Univ., 2009. pp. 92-93.
History of printing. Anthology. Volume III / Comp., preface. and comment. Ya.N. Zasursky, O.A. Bakulina. M.: Aspect Press, 2008. P. 11, 32.
To verify this, just look at the books of V.V. Uchenova “At the Origins of Journalism” (M.: MSU, 1984) and G.G. Pruttskova “History of world journalism. Educational and methodological set" (M.: Aspect Press, 2010), which cover the period from Antiquity to the present.
See ".Abdurakhmanov U. Orol: oppots devor oldida... (Aral: in front of the white wall) // U. Abdurakhmanov. 1^oratsalpots dunesi. (World of Karakalpakstan). Journalism, essay va^ikoyalar (Publicism, essays, stories ). Tashkent: Publishing House of the National Library named after Navoi, 2011 (in nauzk).
Current page: 1 (book has 17 pages total) [available reading passage: 12 pages]
Compiled by Damir Soloviev
Russian writers and publicists about the Russian people
The publication was released with the support of the Committee for Press and Interaction with the Media of St. Petersburg
© D. Soloviev, heirs, 2015
© K. Tublin Publishing House LLC, layout, 2015
© A. Veselov, design, 2015
***
I don't know how to love my country eyes closed, bowed face and closed lips. I believe that you can be useful to her only with a clear view. I believe that the time of blind love has passed, and today, first of all, we owe it to our fatherland to tell the truth 1
An epigraph from P. Ya. Chaadaev’s “Apology for a Madman” is given in the translation. from fr. compiler (ed.).P. Ya. Chaadaev. Apology for a madman
From the compiler
Problem national character is so complex and diverse that there is not even certainty whether it is even solvable in its entirety. However, its extremely important significance for historical science urgently requires some, albeit approximate and not entirely reliable, approaches to the sought answers. This collection represents the experience of collecting evidence and opinions of Russian writers and publicists. At the same time, no selection was made based on the reliability of the assessments, since, on the one hand, it is impossible to establish a criterion for such selection, and on the other hand, even an obvious lie in its own way reflects some part of public opinion.
Particular attention was paid to the search for favorable evidence about Russia and Russians, but such evidence turned out to be in the minority. The compiler, following the example of Chaadaev, so rarely perceived in our country (see epigraph), did not consider it possible for himself to in any way embellish the overall picture, which for him turned out to be completely unexpected in many ways.
D. Soloviev
Alexander Ivanovich Turgenev (1784–1846)
Nikolai Ivanovich Turgenev (1789–1871)
Yesterday the Vice-Rector invited me to a magnificent dinner, as it is here. This should be considered a special sign of his attention to the Russians. He says that there is no one here who behaves as well as the Russians, and he himself asked that we should not have any association with the German students.
Letter from A. I. Turgenev to his parents from Gottingen (Dec. 18, 1802)2
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 2. St. Petersburg, 1911. P. 42.
Cold Germans stand and discuss how best to put out the fire, while no one wants to serve real help. And the fire was not able to warm them! What a comparison with our Russians! What activity and fearlessness is visible in such cases here in Moscow - and what slowness and indifference here!
Gottingen diary of A. I. Turgenev (December 30, 1802).3
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 2. St. Petersburg, 1911. P. 181.
If we compare our Russian peasants with those here, then, it seems to me, it will be possible to say about them the same thing that Karamzin said about the Greeks and the moderns. The Germans are more learned than us; but we are smarter than them; we know how to rejoice and use this precious gift when we find even the slightest reason for it; but the German will think first - and miss these irrevocable moments of joy, which he should use for his true mental and physical benefit. Having thought this way, I asked myself the question: is this intelligence? And can a patriot wish such intelligence for his fellow citizens?
Letter from A.I. Turgenev to his parents from Gottingen (May 25, 1803).4
Right there. P. 79.
It seems to me that not everyone has the right to accuse the Russian common people of being extremely prone to drunkenness; Since the Romans defeated the Germans with strong drinks, it is no less here, with the only difference being that they do not have as many means and incentives to use it for evil. We are praised for the moderation of the Germans; but do they know how to abstain from coffee, which is more harmful for them than vodka for the Russian peasant? If the German peasant is not a drunkard, then his economy rather than abstinence is the reason for this. Mostly the German peasant only needs wine when he wants to be more cheerful than usual; Russian (mostly) drinks out of grief. The tavern is for him the only magical castle that transports him from bitter materiality to that land of joy, where he sees neither the master nor the police captain above him. He drinks from the river of oblivion. However, if you observe impartially, you will see that a German peasant drinks much more than a Russian in a whole day, because he, always having a small bottle of vodka with him, little by little, either to straighten his stomach, or to strengthen his strength, in a word, under He drinks it on various pretexts. On the contrary, a Russian man suddenly drinks and gets drunk. In addition, in winter he needs to visit Bacchus to warm up, and by summer this will already become a habit for him.
With all this, I think that it is not just the northern climate, not just one physical reason for the Russian tendency to drunkenness; but there is another source of this passion that is harmful to us, there are moral reasons (the basis of which is in our state constitution). Russia for the most part consists not of subjects, but of slaves, although not in the Roman and Hungarian sense of the word - and most of the peasants belong to the landowners. The Russian peasant, with his mother's milk, sucks into himself the feeling of his slavery, the thought that everything that he works, everything that he acquires with his blood and sweat - he can not only do everything, but also has the right to take his master away from him. He is often afraid to appear rich, so as not to incur new taxes; and so it remains for him - or to hide what he has acquired (that’s why, since the time Tatar invasion the custom of Russian peasants to bury their treasures in the ground) or to live in constant fear; and in order to avoid both, he chooses the shortest means and takes what he has acquired to the Tsar’s house, as our commoners say. In a word, a much larger part of Russian peasants are deprived of property. And here is one of the main supports on which the throne of Bacchus was erected in Russia. All this was perhaps facilitated by the many holidays on which the peasant considers it his duty to be more cheerful than usual.
A. I. Turgenev. Travel of Russian students along the Harz (1803).5
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 2. St. Petersburg, 1911, pp. 291–292.
I took the letter to the venerable Schlozer<…>An enlightened and kind man who brings honor to his nation! But despite all this, I cannot agree with the priest in your opinion and am always ready to give preference to the Russians in their natural kindness. I am not alone, with my inexperience, in saying for a long time that Schlozer is one of a kind, and that another Schlozer can hardly be found in Germany; but other impartial but experienced judges agree with me on this. Consequently, the Germans cannot be judged by it, and in Russia, rather than here, there will be another Schlozer.
Letter from A.I. Turgenev to his parents from Göttingen (October 5, 1803).6
Right there. P. 117.
Today, as usual, I attended five lectures. Tsvetaev spoke about crimes of various kinds and among other things said that nowhere in other cases is there more contempt for the common people than here in Russia. (Although it pains me, it was very painful to listen to this, I must agree that poor commoners are nowhere as oppressed as here.)
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (May 7, 1808).7
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 1. St. Petersburg, 1911, pp. 109–110.
In Moscow, looking at many people, I considered their way of life boring and even (somewhat) miserable, but now, looking at people in Prussia and here in Westphalia, I respect them in comparison with these happy people.
Is there ever a time when the Creator of the world could rejoice in his creation, then, of course, on the first day of a bright holiday, looking at the Russian land.<…>Where will you find someone like you, generous, brave, majestic, in a word, Russian People! If I had not had the happiness of being Russian (a thought that serves as the greatest consolation for me in this life), then my heart would always strive for this people.
Rejoice, blessed people, best work Creative Hands! Rejoice and feel your joy, your existence!
I'm with him (P.B. Kozlovsky - D. S.) argued a lot, and argued about such subjects that are not subject to any doubt; he claims that the Russian people have no character. Here, brother, just like smart people are mistaken.
Letter from N. I. Turgenev to his brother S. I. Turgenev (November 3, 1811).10
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 3. St. Petersburg, 1913. P. 428.
It's been three weeks since I've been here (<в Москве. – D. S.>), and to this day I have not come to my senses.<…>Insignificant faces, on which the stamp of slavery is visible, rudeness, drunkenness - everything has already managed to make the heart bleed and long for a return to foreign lands. The lack of enlightenment of the upper classes also affected the production of the last desire. The harsh winter seemed to me completely different from what I had imagined it to be when I was in Göttingen and Naples. She is truly murderous.
The more we shake off the foreign, the more splendor, the more glory they appear folk properties our. The more we turn to ourselves, the more we recognize our sufficiency to satisfy what is required from strangers for our benefit. Glory to Kutuzov!
I entrust to your friendship the bearers of this, two Englishmen, Jones and his comrade. I am sure that you will take advantage of this opportunity and try to prove to them that Moscow, even under the ashes, has preserved its ancient virtue that distinguishes Russians: hospitality.
Letter from A. I. Turgenev to A. Ya. Bulgakov (December 27, 1812).13
Letters from Alexander Turgenev to Bulgakov. M., 1939. P. 129.
I would fly after the Russian eagles. The Romans also flew beyond the Rhine, but what glory of ancient and modern peoples can compare with ours!
Letter from A. I. Turgenev to A. Ya. Bulgakov (November 21, 1813).14
Right there. P. 140.
(Occupation of France in 1814)
Russian soldiers behaved towards the French infinitely better than German soldiers. When Prussian and Bavarian troops passed through Nancy and its environs, many outrages were committed and loud complaints were heard among the inhabitants.<…>
How many times have I heard from citizens of Nancy and the surrounding areas that they looked at the Russian soldier who lodged with them as if they were their own son. They treated him with such trust that they left the keys to the house in his hands, entrusted him with babysitting small children, and the Russian soldier willingly helped them with household chores. Therefore, when a rumor spread in Nancy that the city was to be cleared by the Russians and occupied by the Bavarians, the residents said that they would prefer to take in ten Russians instead of one Bavarian. 15
Turgenev. N. I. Russia and Russians. T. I. M., 1915. P. 51–52.
I did not write down what I felt upon my entry into Russia and during my stay in Moscow and here<в Петербурге> – D.S.>. But these feelings were strongly imprinted on my soul. Everything concerning Russia politically, that is, in relation to establishment and administration, seemed sad and terrible to me; everything relating to Russia in a statistical sense, that is, to the people, their properties and the like, seemed to me great and glorious; Of course, the climate and the not-so-good state of the people, whatever it might have been, make an exception in this latter case. “The order and train of thoughts about Russia that had been established in my head has been completely upset since I noticed the reigning disorder everywhere among us. The position of the people and the position of the nobles in relation to the people. The state of the authorities, all this is so disproportionate and so disorderly that it makes all mental research and considerations fruitless.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (November 7, 1816).16
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 5. Pg., 1921. P. 5.
Recently in Staats-Anzeiger I read the plan submitted by Epinus to the late Empress on the formation of schools in Russia. One remark of his struck me, and it is unlikely that he was being unfair. “In Russia,” he says, “they take on everything with passion at first, but then abandon everything.” In many cases one can see the truth of this remark<…>.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (September 21, 1817).17
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 5. Pg., 1921. P. 90.
The character of Russians is big drawback, consisting in the fact that Russians, as a rule, cannot devote themselves to one goal, one thing, hence inconstancy. In this we are worse, I think, than the French, who are so accused of frivolity.
In two or three days of my stay here<в Симбирске. – D.S.> I had the opportunity to notice the lifestyle of provincial nobles, and from what I saw in the Arzhevitinovs’ house, I seem to be able to conclude about others. I came there in the morning and found the owners and guests at the picket, in the afternoon - at Boston, at checkers and at the bank. Meanwhile, the figures of slaves, like ghosts from the world of uncleanness, flashed around the rooms. All these card players would be more engaged in business if they had no serfs. And enlightenment is a consequence of necessity; and the nobles, behind cards and in the habit of their idleness, will not feel and do not feel the need for enlightenment. Meanwhile, some kind of simplicity, ease of handling is sometimes liked; but, they say, in the presence of the Governor they are all humble servants of His Excellency.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (July 20, 1818).19
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 5. Pg., 1921. P. 135.
...in our country every day humanity is insulted, the simplest justice, enlightenment and, in a word, everything that does not allow the earth to turn into a vast desert or into a den of robbers.
I used to be surprised to hear that people from big cities move to secluded places, such as La Harpe in the vicinity of Lausanne from Paris. Now I understand it more. But La Harpe is a different matter. Not understanding such a removal at all, I, on the other hand, do not understand how everyone who has the means to do so will not move from Russia.
Leaving Simbirsk<…>, the sad thought of how much dishonor I had seen made me think. I saw almost no honest people at all, although I saw a lot of people who in society are and should be called good. What makes up the people in Russia? Analyze all the states: nobles, employees, merchants, townspeople, peasants - and you will find that these last alone deserve respect and the greatest regret.
In Moscow there is an abyss of rough pleasures of sensual life. They eat, drink, sleep, play cards - all this at the expense of the peasants burdened with work. – I don’t know where to go; It’s unbearable to live in Russia! – I feel a strong disgust for life.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (March 12, 1821).22
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 5. Pg., 1921. P. 259.
The bitterest feeling for a person is a feeling of self-contempt. And Karamzin, having written Volume IX, assures that we should be proud to be Russian, and so on. and so on. How can you be proud of something you can’t help but cry over – and cry tears of blood?
Letter from N.I. Turgenev to Prince. P. B. Kozlovsky (February 23, 1822).23
Right there. P. 317.
(On the way to Berlin)
There are gardens everywhere in villages. Cities are good. The towns are decent. Pleasantness is always poisoned by what is wrong with us. Therefore, where is the pleasure in traveling?
It is difficult to be in foreign lands, by the way, because Russia is understood here as very distant from European education, perhaps more so than in reality. It's unpleasant to see yourself in this position. But how many people and objects are there in Russia that testify to barbarism!
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (Berlin, May 9, 1824).25
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 5. Pg., 1921. P. 13.
After eating ice cream, I intended to go read to Vss., but preferred to smoke a pipe by the fireplace at Chertkov. I chatted with him until 10 o’clock about bribe-takers in Russia and, returning home, I thought that being away from Russia has the great advantage that you don’t see the fools and bribe-takers with whom you are even obliged to have relations in Russia.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (Florence, November 6, 1824).26
Right there. P. 164.
Yesterday, watching the fool Marchenko, who has lived abroad for six years, bow to the English envoy, some unpleasant feeling pushed me: a reminder of our rudeness. So, except in Russia, they don’t bow anywhere.
Diary of N. I. Turgenev (Florence, November 8, 1824).27
Right there. P. 169.
...we must admit that secret societies may be inevitable in a country like Russia. Only someone who has lived in Russia can imagine the difficulties one encounters here in expressing one's ideas. Whoever wants to speak freely and safely must not only isolate himself in a narrow circle, but also carefully select the persons joining it. Only under this condition is a completely sincere exchange of thoughts possible. 28
Turgenev N. I. Russia and Russians. T. I. M., 1915. P. 7.
The most precious feature of true civilization is a sense of justice, equality, respect for human life and dignity. Whoever thinks about this will see that it is precisely these feelings that primarily distinguish true civilization from barbarism, no matter how decorated and decorated it is, no matter how glossy and varnished it is. Everything can be learned and imitated, except these feelings.
It is difficult to imagine the extent to which these social virtues are absent in Russia, even among people who consider themselves civilized and are indeed civilized in some respects. The ideas of justice and equality are barely recognized here; everyone's contempt for natural rights Here comes respect for human dignity and even for human life. The lack of true civilization is so great that even honest persons, benevolent to their fellow men, who ardently give good deed, often commit, without suspecting it, serious mistakes and offenses that in another country would outrage any noble soul. And as for the disapproval, silent or obvious, which causes every baseness, every shameful act committed by anyone and against anyone, it makes no difference under what circumstances; as for the overwhelming contempt of the public, which often drives in a civilized country to suicide the subject of it; As for general censure, the harsh and beneficial guarantee of public morality, all this is completely unknown in Russia. Depravity, cruelty, even meanness pass unnoticed or are often met with an apology and a condescending attitude. A decent person, a virtuous person, incapable of consciously stooping to anything like that, will not only silence the indignation that the person guilty of all these abominations should arouse in him, but he will, without even blushing, continue his friendship with him. Can virtue be more respected where vice is not branded with contempt? 29
Turgenev N. I. Russia and Russians. T. I. M., 1915. P. 149–150.
Maybe I’m wrong, but it always seemed to me, when I read Karamzin’s writings about Russia, that he definitely wants to say to the Russians: “You are not capable of any progress: be content with the position in which your rulers leave you; don’t try to implement any reform, as you will only do stupid things.” 30
Right there. P. 341.
...Speransky, having emerged from the ranks, reached the first positions of the Empire. His origins undoubtedly contributed greatly to his downfall. He was the son of a village priest. The so-called Russian nobility displays some contempt for the clergy, especially for those who, having previously belonged to this class, have achieved high positions; and the people often seem to share this contempt. 31
Turgenev N. I. Russia and Russians. T. I. M., 1915. 380.
If I regret anything, it is lightness, thoughtlessness, lack of foundation in stories 32
This refers to the publication: Notes of the Decembrists. London, 1863.
But in this regard, I do not blame the very persons of the narrators, but rather the circumstances in which they found themselves, and most of all this Slavic, if not exclusively Russian, frivolity and frivolity, which are so strongly expressed in all actions, in all our judgments and views compatriots.
Letter from N. I. Turgenev to A. I. Herzen (July 27, 1861).33
Literary heritage. M., 1955. T. 62. P. 588.
Pyotr Andreevich Vyazemsky (1792–1878)
However, I live: my day is my century. I have several pleasant acquaintances and live here because I feel stuffy in Russia: I sleep and see how to get away under a different sky and wait for the word fatherland received some meaning in the Russian language.
Letter to M. F. Orlov from Warsaw (March 1820).34
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 6. Pg., 1921. P. 377.
All this is done no matter what and as God commands. Of course, the Russian God is great, and what we do in the dark and at random, others will not be able to do with light and calculations. In our misfortune, we are spoiled by some kind of happiness. Providence looks after children and drunks - and Russians, I might add.
(Aug. 1822).35
Vyazemsky P. A. Notebooks, M., 1963. P. 106
And there are people who consider it a misfortune to be removed from Russia. But what can this Russia give? Ranks, crosses and, for very few, ensuring well-being. Yes, where either Russia refuses to give you these crosses and ranks, or you yourself refuse to have them, Russia no longer exists there, it disintegrates, it scatters through the air like sound. It does not give you the Sun and cannot give you, neither the physical Sun nor the moral Sun. What, what can she warm, what is beautiful, what is high that she can fertilize! Of course, longing for Russia is a sacred thing, for it is born of noble and sublime feelings, but it is still a disease, une maladie mentale 36
Mental illness (French)
It is worthy of respect, and from which only selected people, pure in soul, people seething with noble passion, can suffer, but from the outside, but to healthy people, the torment of this disease is incomprehensible, and if it is understandable, it is only through thought, and not through a corresponding feeling.
Letter to N.I. Turgenev (April 27, 1828).37
Archive of the Turgenev brothers. Vol. 6. Pg., 1921. pp. 71–72.
All our minds are phlegmatic, but stupid ones are fiery; If we had the same intelligence as stupidity, then, probably, in the results there would not be that disproportionality that now frightens and crushes the attention of a patriotic observer.
How we have lost heart since the time of Catherine, that is, since the time of Paul! Some kind of courageous life breathes in these people of Catherine’s reign, how noble their relations with the Empress are; it is clear that she considered them members of the State body. And their courtship itself, their caressing, had something of a knightly quality: the fact that the king was a woman also contributed a lot to this. Afterwards everything took on a kind of servile humiliation. The whole difference is that the high-ranking slaves reign before the servants and crush them, but before the master they are the same silent slaves.<…>
Under Paul, despite all the fear he inspired, somewhat Catherine-like customs were still carried out in the first years; but the reign of Alexander, with all the meekness and many enlightened appearances, especially in the first years, completely erased the personality. The people became numb and fell asleep. All the remaining forces turned to trickery, and began to judge the strength of such and such a dignitary according to the extent of his unpunished abuses of power. Now, even from legend, it has been concluded that the minister can have his own opinion. There is no doubt that since the time of Peter the Great we have made progress in education, but meanwhile we have dried up in soul. The power of Peter, one might say, was tyrannical in comparison with the power of our time, but the rights of rebuttal and legal resistance have weakened to the point of insignificance. It’s good, in France Richelieu bent his back and tormented souls, this also in his way iron-footed hero, but with us who and how made this change? It was not a consequence of the system - so much the worse.
(1830).
39
Vyazemsky P. A. Notebooks. M., 1963. S. 202, 203.
We are amazingly self-praising, and the sad thing is that in our self-praising there is some kind of servile side. French self-praise also elevates some sonorous words that are not in our dictionary. No matter how happy we may be, we all look like the servants who sing in the footman’s room and congratulate the master on his name day, on being awarded a rank, and so on.
(1831).
40
Vyazemsky P. A., Notebooks. M., 1963. P. 212.
For what resurgent Europe to love us? Are we contributing even a penny to the treasury of general education? We are a brake on the movements of peoples towards gradual moral and political improvement. We are outside the resurgent Europe, and yet we gravitate above it.<…>
I’m so tired of these geographical fanfare of ours: From Perm to Taurida and so on. What is good here, what to rejoice at and what to brag about, that we are lying stretched out, that we have five thousand miles from thought to thought, that physical Russia is Fedora, and moral Russia is a fool.
(1831).
41
Right there. P. 214.
In our country, the simplest concepts, human and civil, have not yet entered into legal force and general use. All this is due to ignorance: our government people are no more evil and no more vicious than in other lands, but they are more uneducated.
(1841).
42
Right there. P. 276.
Russian subtlety, cunning, and sharpness naturally make a diplomat out of every smart Russian.
Diary entry (Sept. 1853)43
Vyazemsky P. A. Full collection op. T. 10. St. Petersburg, 1886. P. 20.
Yesterday Russian lunch at Hotel d'Europe, at which there was both a Russian conversation and a Russian argument, that is, everyone shouted at once, interrupting each other, and everyone lied as loud as they could.