Where is the Southern Ocean on the world map. Seas around Antarctica - Southern Ocean

Convention. South ocean was first identified in 1650 by the Dutch geographer Benhard Varenius and included both the “southern continent”, not yet discovered by Europeans, and all areas above the southern polar circle.

The term "Southern Ocean" appeared on maps in the 18th century, when systematic exploration of the region began. Under the name "Southern" Arctic Ocean"usually meant, according to the boundaries established in 1845 by the Royal Geographical Society in London, the space bounded on all sides by the southern polar circle and extending from this circle to south pole to the Antarctic continent. In publications of the International Hydrographic Organization, the Southern Ocean was separated from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific in 1937. There was an explanation for this: in its southern part, the boundaries between the three oceans are very arbitrary, while at the same time, the waters adjacent to Antarctica have their own specifics, and are also united by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. However, later they abandoned the distinction of a separate Southern Ocean.

Currently, the ocean itself continues to be considered a body of water, which is mostly surrounded by land. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization adopted a division into five oceans, but this decision was never ratified. The current definition of oceans from 1953 does not include the Southern Ocean.

There are currently four oceans in the world: the Pacific, Indian, Atlantic and Arctic.

Some sources indicate that the International Hydrographic Organization in 2000 made a legally binding decision to divide the World Ocean into five parts. Other sources record that this decision has no legal force. It is necessary to understand whether the decision of the International Hydrographic Organization of 2000 has legal force?

Most sources indicate that the 2000 International Hydrographic Organization decision has not yet been ratified. Let me note that ratification should be understood as the process of giving legal force to a document. From the above it follows that the decision of the International Hydrographic Organization of 2000 does not yet have legal force, that is, the number of oceans is currently four, not five. I note that in 1953 the International Hydrogeographical Bureau developed a new division of the World Ocean, according to which There are four oceans, not five. The current definition of oceans from 1953 does not include the Southern Ocean. Therefore, there are currently four oceans.

General information. The ring of ocean waters washing Antarctica combines characteristic features separate ocean and well-defined natural features of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans.

A difficult issue in this situation is the issue of boundaries. In the south it is limited by the coast of the southern polar continent. This ocean has no western or eastern border. According to modern scientifically based ideas, the northern border is considered to be the northern periphery of the Antarctic convergence line (a strip of convergence of relatively warm and cold surface waters) at approximately 40-50° S. sh., which is close to the northern border of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

The main feature of this conditional geographical boundary of the Southern Ocean is its certain changes in time and space due to interannual and interseasonal fluctuations in the position of the Antarctic convergence lines.

Within the designated boundaries, the area of ​​the Southern Ocean is 86 million km (according to some sources, this is a controversial issue), the average depth is 3503 m, the greatest depth is 8264 m (South Sandwich Trench, Meteor). There are many islands of varying sizes scattered throughout the Southern Ocean, most of which have complex mountainous terrain. The seas are located on the southern periphery of the ocean. The Scotia Sea is unique. In the south, the seas are limited to the coast of Antarctica, and in the north they are open to the ocean.

Relief of the ocean floor. Based on modern research in geographical science, the continent and its surrounding waters lie mainly on the continental-oceanic Antarctic. Some sections of the bottom of the northern reaches of the Southern Ocean are located on other plates adjacent to the Pacific-South American plates, the Scotia Sea, etc. The features and topography of the Southern Ocean bottom are associated with this. All the main geomorphological forms are clearly expressed on the bottom; the shelf zone is characterized by a small width (on average 150 km). Only in the Ross Seas does its width reach 1000-1100 km. The average depth of the shelf zone reaches 200 m.

The continental slope of Antarctica, especially its eastern part, is dissected by steps and cut through by an abundance of underwater canyons. In the Antarctic part, the continental slope is steep near the Pacific coast and relatively flat and weakly dissected near the Antarctic coast.

The ocean floor is characterized by a number of underwater ridges, small rises and basins. The largest ranges are the West Indian and Central Indian, within which rift valleys are clearly visible. They are essentially the southern spurs of mid-ocean ridges.

Within the Southern Ocean there are the Australian-Antarctic, South Pacific and partially East Pacific rises. In the area of ​​60° south. w. There are large ocean basins: African-Antarctic (6787 m), Australian-Antarctic (6098 m) and Bellingshausen (5399 m).

In the general circulation of ocean waters, their vertical movement plays an important role. Between the Eastern and Western Currents, due to their divergence (divergence), deep waters enriched with nutrients rise.

Over the continental slope within the Weddell Sea in winter, cooled and saline surface waters, being heavier, sink into the deeper layers. As a result of this phenomenon, relatively cold and salty bottom waters are formed. They spread east around Antarctica and north into the Atlantic, and where they mix with their waters.

Wind waves develop in ice-free areas of the Southern Ocean. It is strongest in winter between 40 and 60° S. w. Waves with a height of about 2 m predominate here, and during a storm they reach a height of 8-9 m. The highest waves are recorded near the Kerguelen Island (sector of the Indian Ocean) - up to 35 m. Significant waves with a wave height of 4-6 m are noted to the west of the Drake Passage and in the area to the southwest. In summer, the strength of the waves weakens, the height of the waves decreases. Area 40-60° S. w. They are usually called the “roaring forties” and the “furious fifties”.

Tides in the Southern Ocean are observed everywhere, their largest values ​​(about 8 m) are observed off the southern coast. In other areas the value is 2-2.5 m.

Ice is one of the most characteristic natural features of the Southern Ocean. They exist all year round. During maximum development (September-October), ice covers an area of ​​18-19 million km2, and in summer time(January-February) - only 2-3 million km2.

Sea ice (fast ice and drifting ice), shelf ice and ice are found here. To the north of the fast ice there is drifting ice. The patterns and direction of their movement are determined by winds and currents.

Between the edge of the fast ice and the drifting ice there are flaw polynyas - large spaces clean water. The presence of shelf ice is associated with the coastal strip of the shelf. This ice is of sedimentary origin; its continental edge is a continuation of the land cover. It lies completely on the ground. The average height of the shelf ice is 430 m, and above sea level it rises by 10 and sometimes 50 m.

The presence of icebergs is the most significant feature of the Southern Ocean. They are formed as a result of the breaking off of coastal parts of continental and shelf ice under the influence of waves, swell and. According to available data, over 200,000 icebergs are found in the waters of the Southern Ocean every year. Their average length is about 500 m, and their height is 50 m above sea level. Individual icebergs are up to 5 km long. The bulk of icebergs melt within 3-5 years. Largest quantity icebergs are found at a distance of 100-150 km from the coast. At a distance of up to 700 km they are quite rare. Under the influence of wind and current, icebergs drift in the coastal zone of Antarctica. As they drift over time, they are destroyed and take on bizarre shapes.

Organic life in the ocean. The presence of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in the ocean determines the composition and distribution of organic life. Huge masses of ice limit life in the ocean, but nevertheless, the Antarctic seas can compete with many tropical areas of the World Ocean in the abundance and diversity of living organisms. The long existence of flora and fauna in a little changing environment (at least 5 million years) has led to the fact that organisms have adapted to harsh living conditions. Diatoms remain viable down to a temperature of -20 °C. Fish have developed adaptations for living in supercooled water, and the inhabitants of the lower surface of the fast ice use the ice as a shelter, where rich pastures of ice algae - regrowth - are formed.

The circumpolar position of the Southern Ocean is associated with sharp seasonal dynamics of the main condition for photosynthesis - . Under such conditions, a large amplitude of quantitative changes in phytoplankton and a shift in the flowering zone from the north, where spring begins earlier, to the south, where it is delayed, are observed throughout the year. In low latitudes, two peaks of flowering have time to develop, and in high latitudes only one. IN surface waters biological latitudinal zonation is clearly expressed. The inhabitants of the bottom do not have such zoning, since the bottom topography and barriers that prevent the exchange of flora and fauna play an important role in their development. In the Southern Ocean, phytoplankton is dominated by diatoms (about 180 species).

Blue-green algae make up a small number. In quantitative terms, diatoms also predominate, especially in high latitudes, where they are almost 100%. During the period of maximum bloom, the number of diatoms reaches its largest concentration.

There is a clear relationship between the distribution of algae and the vertical stability of waters. In summer, a significant mass of algae is found in the surface 25-meter layer.

In the direction from south to north, the composition of phytoplankton changes: high-latitude cold-water species gradually disappear from the flora, being replaced by warm-water species.

Zooplankton in the waters of the Southern Ocean is represented by copepods (about 120 species), amphipods (about 80 species), etc., chaetognaths, polychaetes, ostracods, appendicularia and mollusks are of lesser importance. In quantitative terms, copepods are in first place, accounting for almost 75% of the zooplankton biomass of the Pacific and Indian sectors of the ocean. There are few copepods in the ocean sector, since euphausiids (krill) are widespread.

The Southern Ocean, especially its Antarctic regions, is characterized by massive accumulations of krill (Antarctic crustaceans). The krill biomass in these areas reaches 2,200 million tons, which makes it possible to catch up to 50-70 million tons of krill annually. Here, krill is the main food of baleen whales, seals, fish, cephalopods, penguins and tubenosed birds. Crustaceans feed on phytoplankton.

The number of zooplankton has two peaks during the year. The first is associated with the rise of overwintered species and is observed in surface waters. The second peak is characterized by the abundance of zooplankton throughout the entire thickness and is due to the emergence of a new generation. Both peaks appear in the form of two latitudinal bands of zooplankton concentration. This is the period of the zooplankton bloom in summer, when most of the zooplankton enters the upper layers and moves north, where a noticeable accumulation occurs in the Antarctic Convergence Zone.

In winter, condensation is observed in the divergence area, where individuals from the deep gather. In winter, the maximum species abundance was noted at depths of 250-1000 m.

The question of the vertical distribution of zooplankton is complicated by the ability of many organisms to perform regular (daily, seasonal) migrations from one zone to another.

Phytobenthos and zoobenthos in the waters of the Southern Ocean amazes with its richness and diversity. The number of phytobenthos decreases from South America to Antarctica. If 300 species are known, in Kerguelen - 138, then off the coast of Antarctica there are from 20 to 40 species. Mainly predominate different kinds red algae. Brown algae reaches gigantic size(marcocystis - 80 and sometimes 90 m in length) with limited biomass.

Among the representatives of zoobenthos, filter feeders predominate, mainly sponges (300 species), polychaetes (300), bryozoans (320), brachiopods (15), mollusks (300), and echinoderms (320 species).

The biomass of zoobenthos in coastal areas averages up to 0.5 kg/m2, and in some places reaches 3 kg/m2 at depths of 20-50 m; there are no permanent inhabitants in the surface zone. The fauna is distributed unevenly along the coast. The decrease in biomass begins at a depth of 500 m. It should be noted that if in other areas of the World Ocean the lower boundary of the sublittoral is at a depth of 200 m, then near Antarctica sublittoral animals live at depths of 500-700 m. species diversity typical to a depth of 200-300 m, fish - at depths of 200-500 m.

The Antarctic region of the Southern Ocean has a rich, unique fauna and many endemic species. The fauna is characterized by gigantism of many representatives (for example, among sponges).

Near the Kerguelen Island, the fauna is 5 times poorer than mainland areas. There are about 100 species of fish in the Southern Ocean. Among them, only 12 are bottom-dwelling, belonging to the nototenaceae family, and of commercial importance. White pike, grenadier, gray and marbled notothenia, and southern blue whiting are widely represented in the Antarctic sector. In the Indian sector of the ocean, the number of commercial fish is small. It is home to striped whitefish (icefish), gray and marbled notothenia. In the Pacific sector, the largest in area, southern blue whiting and New Zealand macroruno are found.

Mammals. The total number of whales in the Southern Ocean is estimated to be approximately over 500 thousand. Pinnipeds include the crabeater seal, leopard seal, southern elephant seal, Ross seal, Weddell seal and a number of others. Antarctic seals make up up to 56% of the global pinniped population.

Ornithofauna. It is represented by 44 species of birds with a total number of 200 million individuals. Among them, 7 species of penguins account for 90% of the total biomass.

South ocean- the youngest among all the oceans of the planet. Located exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, it washes Antarctica and merges with all oceans except the Northern.

South ocean

As already mentioned, the boundaries of the Southern Ocean are arbitrary; from the south, the ocean’s border is the coast of Antarctica; from the north, the encircling boundary is considered to be 60 degrees south latitude. The ocean area is 20.327 million km².
The greatest depth of the Southern Ocean is South Sandwich Trench. It is equal to 8428 m.

To the Southern (Antarctic) Ocean (there are 13 in total):

1. Mawson,
2. Rossa,
3. Somova,
4. Durvel,
5. Cosmonauts,
6. Lazareva,
7. Bellingshausen,
8. Rieser-Larsen and
9. Amudsen.

The islands in those places look something like this

Climatic conditions in the Southern Ocean

Temperatures range from -2 to 10º C. Starting from 40 degrees south. latitudes towards the Arctic Circle experience the strongest average winds on the planet. In winter, the air over the ocean freezes to 55-65 degrees below zero. Due to the huge temperature contrast between ice and ocean waters, intense cyclonic storm movement rages east of Antarctica.

the air above those latitudes is crystal clear, not polluted by emissions or exhaust gases. Thanks to this, the sky of the Southern Ocean amazes with its beauty

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and the number of visible stars. Where else can you see such a gorgeous picture of the night sky over the ocean?

You can find icebergs in those Antarctic latitudes throughout the Southern Ocean. Some of the Antarctic icebergs reach enormous sizes and are between 6 and 15 years old.

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It is estimated that up to 200 super-large icebergs exist in Antarctic waters at any one time. Smaller icebergs, their fragments and ice often create greater difficulties for ships.

Life in the Southern Ocean

The youngest ocean on the planet is the Southern or Antarctic. It is located in the Southern Hemisphere and has contact points with other oceans, excluding Northern Ocean. The waters of the Southern Ocean wash Antarctica. The International Geographical Organization identified it in 2000, combining the waters of the southern regions of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans into one whole. This ocean has conditional boundaries, since there are no continents or islands in the northern part of its waters.

History of discovery

The Southern Ocean has been an object of interest to people for a very long time. They tried to explore it back in the 18th century, but at that time the ice shell was an insurmountable barrier for travelers. It appeared on the map even earlier, in 1650. In the 19th century polar Antarctica Whalers from England and Norway managed to visit. In the 20th century, the Southern Ocean was a whaling area and a site for scientific research.
Currently, the existence of the Southern Ocean is a proven fact, but this decision of the hydrological organization is not legal. Thus, legally there is no such area on the planet. At the same time, the Southern Ocean is marked on the world map. The southern border of its water area is Antarctica, the northern border is considered to be 60 degrees south latitude.

Geographical details

The ocean occupies more than 20 million square meters. km. The South Sandwich Trench is the deepest place in the ocean, where the maximum elevation reaches 8428 m. A map of the Southern Ocean shows that it is formed by the following seas: Commonwealth, Mawson, Ross, Durvel, Somov, Skosh, Lazarev, Cosmonauts, Riiser-Larsen, Amundsen, Weddell, Davis and Bellingshausen. There are many islands of different sizes located in the water area. Almost all of them are of volcanic origin. The largest islands include South Shetland, South Orkney, and Kerguelen.

Climatic features

The Southern Ocean coast is an area dominated by harsh elements. Conditions prevail over water maritime climate, and on the coast there is an Antarctic climate. All year round It's cold, windy and cloudy here. Snow falls in any season.
Closer to the Arctic Circle, the most powerful winds on the planet are formed. Storms are formed due to the huge temperature difference between the ocean waters and the air. In winter the air reaches 60-65 degrees below zero. The atmosphere above the water area is characterized by environmental purity.
Weather conditions are due to a number of reasons: the proximity of Antarctica, permanent ice cover, and the absence of warm sea currents. A zone of high pressure constantly forms over land. At the same time, an area of ​​low pressure or Antarctic depression is forming around Antarctica. Features of the water area - a large number of icebergs, which are formed as a result of the breaking off of parts of glaciers under the influence of tsunamis, swells and waves. There are more than 200 thousand icebergs in the Southern Ocean every year.

And often identified as the “fifth ocean”, which, however, does not have a clearly defined northern border by islands and continents. The area of ​​the Southern Ocean can be determined by oceanological characteristics: as the line of convergence of cold Antarctic currents with more warm waters three oceans. But such a boundary constantly changes its position and depends on the season, so it is inconvenient for practical purposes. In 2000, member states of the International Hydrographic Organization decided to distinguish the Southern Ocean as an independent fifth ocean, connecting the southern parts of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, within the limits limited on the north by the 60th parallel of south latitude, and also limited by the Antarctic Treaty. The accepted area of ​​the Southern Ocean is 20.327 million km² (between the coast of Antarctica and the 60th parallel south latitude).

The greatest depth of the ocean lies in the South Sandwich Trench and is 8264 m. Average depth - 3270 m. The length of the coastline is 17,968 km.

As of 1978, in all Russian-language practical maritime manuals (marine navigation maps, sailing directions, lights and signs, etc.) the concept of “Southern Ocean” was absent, the term was not used among sailors.

Since the end of the 20th century, the Southern Ocean has been marked on maps and atlases published by Roscartography. In particular, it is signed in the 3rd edition of the fundamental Atlas of the World and in other atlases published in the 21st century.

Seas around Antarctica

Typically, 13 seas are distinguished off the coast of Antarctica: Weddell, Scotia, Bellingshausen, Ross, Amundsen, Davis, Lazarev, Riiser-Larsen, Cosmonauts, Commonwealth, Mawson, D'Urville, Somov; in Norway it is customary to also highlight the sea of ​​King Haakon VII. The most important islands of the Southern Ocean: Kerguelen, South Shetland, South Orkney. The Antarctic shelf is submerged to a depth of 500 meters.

All seas washing Antarctica, except the Scotia and Weddell seas, are marginal. In the tradition accepted in most countries, they divide its coast into sectors as follows:

Southern Ocean in cartography

Many maps of Australia refer to the sea immediately south of Australia as the "Southern Ocean"

The Southern Ocean was first identified in 1650 by the Dutch geographer Bernhard Varenius and included both the “southern continent”, not yet discovered by Europeans, and all areas above the Antarctic Circle.

Currently, the ocean itself continues to be considered a body of water, which is mostly surrounded by land. In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization adopted a division into five oceans, but this decision was never ratified. The current definition of oceans from 1953 does not include the Southern Ocean.

In the Soviet tradition (1969), the approximate boundary of the so-called “Southern Ocean” was considered to be the northern boundary of the Antarctic convergence zone, located near 55° south latitude. In other countries, the border is also blurred - latitude south of Cape Horn, the border of floating ice, the Antarctic Convention zone (the area south of 60 parallels of south latitude). The Australian Government considers the "Southern Ocean" to be the waters immediately south of the Australian continent.

In atlases and geographic Maps the name "Southern Ocean" was included until the first quarter of the 20th century. IN Soviet time this term was not used [ ], however, from the end of the 20th century he began to sign on maps published by Roscartography.

History of Southern Ocean exploration

XVI-XIX centuries

The first ship to cross the border of the Southern Ocean belonged to the Dutch; it was commanded by Dirk Geeritz, who sailed in Jacob Magyu's squadron. In 1559, in the Strait of Magellan, Geeritz's ship, after a storm, lost sight of the squadron and went south. Having descended to 64° south latitude, it saw high ground- possibly the South Orkney Islands. In 1671, Anthony de la Roche discovered South Georgia; Bouvet Island was discovered in 1739; in 1772, the French naval officer Kerguelen discovered an island in the Indian Ocean named after him.

Almost simultaneously with Kerguelen's voyage, James Cook set off from England on his first voyage to the southern hemisphere, and already in January 1773 his ships Adventure and Resolution crossed the Antarctic Circle on meridian 37 °33"E longitude. After a difficult struggle with the ice, he reached 67°15"S latitude, where he was forced to turn north. In December of the same year, Cook again set off for the Southern Ocean; on December 8, he crossed the Antarctic Circle at 150°6" west longitude and, at the parallel of 67°5" south latitude, was covered with ice, freed from which, he went further south and, in late January 1774, reached 71°15" south latitude, 109°14" west longitude, southwest of Tierra del Fuego. Here an impenetrable wall of ice prevented him from going further. On his second voyage in the Southern Ocean, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle twice. During both voyages he became convinced that the abundance ice mountains indicates the existence of a significant Antarctic continent. He described the difficulties of polar voyages in such a way that only whalers continued to visit these latitudes and the southern polar scientific expeditions ceased for a long time.

In 1819, the Russian navigator Bellingshausen, commanding the sloops of war "Vostok" and "Mirny", visited South Georgia and tried to penetrate deep into the Southern Ocean; for the first time, in January 1820, almost on the Greenwich meridian, he reached 69°21" south latitude; then, leaving the southern polar circle, Bellingshausen walked along it east to 19° east longitude, where he crossed it again and reached in February again almost the same latitude (69°6"). Further east, he rose only to the 62° parallel and continued his path along the outskirts floating ice, then, on the meridian of the Balleny Islands, reached 64°55", in December 1820, at 161° west longitude, passed the southern polar circle and reached 67°15" south latitude, and in January 1821, between the meridians 99° and 92° west longitude, reached 69° 53" south latitude; then, almost at the 81° meridian, discovered at 68° 40" south latitude, the high coast of the island of Peter I, and having passed further east, inside the southern polar circle - the coast of Alexander Land I. Thus, Bellingshausen was the first to complete a complete voyage around the Southern Arctic continent, which he discovered, almost all the time between latitudes 60° - 70°, on small sailing ships.

Steam ship L'Astrolabe in 1838

At the end of 1837, a French expedition, under the command of Dumont-D'Urville, consisting of two steam ships - "Astrolabe" ("L'Astrolabe") and "Zélée" ("La Zélée"), set off to explore Oceania, to check information Weddel and others. In January 1838, Dumont-D'Urville followed Weddel's path, but ice blocked his path at the parallel of 63° south latitude. South of the South Shetland Islands he saw a high coast called the Land of Louis Philippe; it later turned out that this land was an island, the western shores of which were called Trinity Land and Palmer Land. After wintering in Tasmania, on the way to the south, Dumont-D'Urville encountered the first ice and, after difficult navigation between them, on January 9, 1840, at latitudes 66° - 67°, almost on the Arctic Circle, and 141° east. D. saw a high mountainous coast. Dumont-D'Urville traced this land, called the Land of Adélie, along the Arctic Circle to the meridian 134° east longitude. On January 17, at 65° south latitude and 131° east longitude, another coast was discovered, called the Clary Coast.

An American expedition, consisting of three ships: "Vincennes", "Peacock" and "Porpoise", under the command of Lieutenant Willis, set out from the Tierra del Fuego archipelago in February 1839 with the aim of trying to follow the Weddel route to the south, but it was met with the same insurmountable obstacles , like Dumont-D'Urville, and she was forced to return without much results to Chile (at the meridian of 103° west longitude she reached almost 70° south latitude and here she seemed to see land). In January 1840, American explorer Charles Wilkes went almost due south along 160° east longitude. Already at the parallel of 64°11" south latitude, the ice blocked his further path. Turning west and reaching the meridian 153°6" east longitude, at 66° south latitude, he saw a mountain 120 km away, which he named Ringold Knohl. Ross, who visited the area a little later, disputed Wilkes's discovery, but without reason. The honor of discovering various parts of Wilkes Land actually belongs to each of the three navigators - Wilkes, Dumont-D'Urville and Ross - separately. During January and February 1840, Wilkes traveled a considerable distance along the outskirts of the Antarctic continent and reached the meridian of 96° east longitude. During the entire voyage he was unable to land anywhere on the shore.

The third English expedition, under the command of James Clark Ross, on the steam ships Erebus and Terror (Crozier was the commander of Erebus), was equipped to explore the southern polar countries in general. In August 1840, Ross was in Tasmania, where he learned that Dumont-D'Urville had just discovered the shores of the Terre Adélie; this led him to begin his research further east, on the meridian of the Balleny Islands. In December 1840, the expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle at the meridian 169°40"E and soon began fighting the ice. After 10 days, the ice strip was passed, and on December 31 (old style) they saw the high coast of Victoria Land, one of the highest mountain peaks which Ross named after the initiator of the expedition - Sabin, and the entire chain of mountains with a height of 2000 - 3000 m - the Admiralty Ridge. All the valleys of this chain were filled with snow and huge glaciers descending to the sea. Beyond Cape Adar, the coast turned to the south, remaining mountainous and inaccessible Ross landed on one of the Possession Islands, at 71°56" south latitude and 171°7" east longitude, completely devoid of vegetation and inhabited by a mass of penguins who covered its shores with a thick layer of guano. Continuing his voyage further south, Ross discovered the Kuhlman Islands and Franklin (the latter at 76°8" south latitude) and saw directly to the south a coast and a high mountain (Erebus volcano) 3794 meters high, and a little to the east another volcano was seen, already extinct, called Terror, 3230 meters high. A further path to the south was blocked by a coast that turned east and was bordered by a continuous vertical ice wall, up to 60 meters high above the water, descending, according to Ross, to a depth of about 300 meters. This ice barrier was distinguished by the absence of any significant depressions, bays or capes; its almost flat, vertical wall stretched over an enormous distance. Beyond the icy shore, to the south, the peaks of a high mountain range were visible, extending into the depths of the southern polar continent; she is named after Parry. Ross traveled from Victoria Land to the east about 840 km, and throughout this entire distance the nature of the ice coast remained unchanged. Finally, late time year forced Ross to return to Tasmania. On this voyage he reached 78°4" south latitude, between meridians 173°-174° west longitude. On the second voyage, his ships on December 20, 1841 again crossed the Antarctic Circle and went south. At the beginning of February 1842, on meridian 165 ° west longitude, they reached a more open sea and headed straight south, approaching the ice coast a little more east than in 1841. At 161°27" west longitude they reached 78°9" south latitude, that is, they approached the southern closer to the Pole than anyone has hitherto.Further voyage to the east was blocked solid ice(pack), and the expedition turned north. In December 1842, Ross made a third attempt to penetrate the south; this time he chose the path of Weddel and headed towards the Land of Louis Philippe. Going east, Ross, at the meridian of 8° west longitude, crossed the Arctic Circle and on February 21 reached 71°30" south latitude, 14°51 west longitude.

Almost 30 years later, the expedition on the corvette Challenger visited, among other things, the southern polar countries. Having visited Kerguelen Island, the Challenger headed south and reached 65°42" south latitude. At 64°18" south latitude and 94°47" east longitude, he determined a depth of 2380 meters, and although, according to Wilkes's map, the coast should have been only 30 kilometers away, it was not visible.

Climate and weather

Sea temperatures vary from approximately −2 to 10 °C. Storms cyclonically move eastward around the continent and are often intense due to the temperature contrast between the ice and the open ocean. The ocean region from 40 degrees south latitude to the Antarctic Circle experiences the strongest average winds on Earth. In winter, the ocean freezes to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, dropping surface temperatures well below 0 °C; in some coastal locations there are permanent strong winds leave the coastline ice-free during the winter.

Icebergs can occur at any time of year throughout the Southern Ocean. Some of them are capable of reaching several hundred meters; Smaller icebergs, fragments and sea ice (usually 0.5 to 1 meter) also pose problems for ships. The icebergs found are 6-15 years old, which suggests the simultaneous existence in the ocean waters of more than 200 thousand icebergs ranging in length from 500 meters to 180 km and a width of up to several tens of kilometers.