Arctic Ocean.
Northern Arctic Ocean lies between two continents - Eurasia and North America. According to its physical and geographical features, it is divided into the deep-sea Arctic basin, approximately in the center of which the Earth’s North Pole is located, and the marginal Arctic seas, most of them shallow. There are many islands in these seas, some of them are grouped into large and small archipelagos.
The waters of the Arctic Ocean wash the shores of our Motherland from the north. The main route of the Northern Sea Route runs along them - along the White, Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi seas. Most of the Arctic Ocean lies within the Arctic Circle. The most important feature of this area is the polar night and polar day. In Murmansk, the starting point of the Northern Sea Route, the polar night lasts 40 days, the polar day - 58; on Cape Chelyuskin - the most northern point continent - the duration of the polar night is 107 days, the polar day is 123; At the North Pole, the polar night and polar day last approximately six months.
The nature of the Arctic Ocean is extremely harsh. Winter lasts nine to eleven months with severe frosts and severe snowstorms. All visible life freezes. Only occasionally will a lone polar bear pass by in search of food, or a graceful arctic animal, the white arctic fox, will flash past. The short, cold summer, cloudy and damp, is also not encouraging. The sky is almost always covered with a dense layer of low, dull clouds, an annoying drizzling rain falls almost every day, and a fog piercing with dampness often creeps in. Despite the fact that the sun makes its way above the horizon around the clock, it is very rarely possible to see it. The air temperature on Franz Josef Land, Cape Chelyuskin, and Severnaya Zemlya in summer stays around 0°C. On any summer day it can drop to -5°, -10°, heavy snowfall and blizzard are possible.
The Arctic basin is covered with drifting ice fields at all times of the year. As a result of uneven drift, the ice is separated in places, and spaces are formed open water- divorces; in other places, on the contrary, the ice is compressed and, breaking, they form chaotic piles - hummocks. In the marginal seas in winter, floating ice freezes to the shores as stationary ice fast ice. In summer, the fast ice is destroyed and cracked. There are years when the broken ice moves far from the coast, clearing the way for steamships, and sometimes they do not move away at all or go far away, making navigation difficult.
The Arctic land also looks harsh. All mainland coasts and islands are bound by permafrost. Many islands are partially or even completely buried by powerful glaciers. There are no trees or bushes anywhere.
The beginning of Russian exploration of the Arctic Ocean dates back to the middle of the 12th century, when the Pomors first came to the shores of the White Sea and then the Barents Sea, where they hunted seals, walruses, whales, polar bears, and valuable fish species. Gradually expanding their fishing areas, the Pomors, apparently in the 14th century. already sailed to Novaya Zemlya and no later than the 16th century - to Spitsbergen.
In 1525, the Russian writer and diplomat Dmitry Gerasimov first expressed the idea of the likely existence of a waterway running along the northern shores of Europe and Asia. Gerasimov's idea served as an impetus for the search for the Northern Sea Route by England and Holland, which equipped them for this purpose in the 16th-17th centuries. several expeditions. However, none of them went further than the western regions of the Kara Sea.
The first English expedition set sail in 1553 from London on three small sailing ships. During a strong storm on the approach to the North Cape, the ships lost each other. Two of them, including the one on which the head of the expedition, Admiral Hugh Willoughby, was, went to Novaya Zemlya or to Kolguev Island, from where they turned back and stopped for the winter on the Murmansk coast, near the mouth of the Varsina River. The first wintering of Europeans in the waters of the Arctic Ocean ended tragically - the entire personnel of both ships, numbering 65 people, died from cold and hunger. The fate of the third ship, commanded by Richard Chancellor, was happier. But his voyage was limited to the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina.
In 1596, a Dutch ship under the command of Jacob Gemskerk and Willem Barents successfully reached the northern shore of Novaya Zemlya. It seemed to the sailors that the desired path to the countries of the East was already open, but their ship was tightly covered with ice in the bay, which they called Ice Harbor. The sailors went ashore and built a house. Several people could not bear the hardships of the harsh winter and died. Barents and many others became seriously ill with scurvy. With the onset of summer, the Dutch abandoned the ship frozen in the ice and along the coastal strip clean water went south on two boats. Near the island of Mezhdusharsky they were noticed by Russian Pomors hunting here. They supplied the distressed sailors with food and indicated the safest route to return to their homeland. On September 2, 1597, the Dutch arrived safely in Cola, and from there they returned to Amsterdam on a passing ship. But Barents was not among them. The brave navigator died in the first days of sailing on boats.
While the British and Dutch tried unsuccessfully to open the Northern sea route, the great movement to the east of Russian Pomors and explorers began. Already in the middle of the 16th century. Pomors mastered the sea route at the mouth of the Ob. Using tributaries Siberian rivers, Pomors and explorers from the Ob moved to the Yenisei and Lena. They made voyages to the Arctic Ocean and along its shores. Thus, the sea route was opened from the mouth of the Yenisei to Pyasina, from the mouth of the Lena to the Olenek and Anabar rivers to the west, to the Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma rivers to the east.
In 1648, a group of sailors led by the “trading man” Fedot Alekseev Popov and the Cossack ataman Semyon Ivanov Dezhnev bypassed the Chukotka Peninsula on kochas and entered the Pacific Ocean. In 1686-1688. The trade expedition of Ivan Tolstoukhov on three kochas circumnavigated the Taimyr Peninsula from west to east. In 1712, explorers Mercury Vagin and Yakov Permyakov first visited Bolshoi Lyakhovsky Island, marking the beginning of the discovery and exploration of the entire group of New Siberian Islands. In a little more than a century, Russian Pomors and explorers traversed the entire Northern Sea Route in separate sections. Dmitry Gerasimov's assumption about the existence of a sea route from Europe to the Pacific Ocean around the northern shores of Eurasia was confirmed.
Despite the large area of Russia, it is washed by only 13 seas, 12 of which belong to three oceans (Pacific, Arctic, Atlantic) and one sea-lake belonging to the internal endorheic basin of Eurasia. The seas are located on four lithospheric plates (Eurasian, North American, Sea of Okhotsk and Amur).
All seas are distinguished by a number of natural characteristics, such as: origin, geological structure, topography and bottom shape, depth of sea basins, temperature, etc.
Seas of the Arctic Ocean
The largest group of seas that wash Russia belongs to the Arctic Ocean. This group includes the seas: Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Barents, Chukchi and White.
They wash Russia from the north. It is noteworthy that only the White Sea is inland, all other seas are continental-marginal. Between the seas of the Arctic Ocean, the boundaries are marked by islands and archipelagos (Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen, etc.), and where the border is not clearly visible, it is drawn mentally. total area these seas reach 4.5 million km^2, and the average depth is only 185 meters.
Since all these seas are on the continental shelf, they are all shallow. The deepest sea is the Laptev Sea. Its northern part occupies the edge of the deep-sea Nansen Basin. The depth of the sea in this place reaches 3385 meters. Thanks to this, the average depth of the Laptev Sea reaches 533 meters.
In winter, its temperature ranges from -0.8°C to +1.7°C, and in summer from +0.8°C to +10°C. The second place of honor is occupied by the Barents Sea, maximum depth which reaches 600 meters, and the average depth is only 222 meters. The Kara Sea took third place.
Although its maximum depth is greater than the Barents Sea and reaches 620 meters, its average depth barely reaches 111 meters, which is 2 times less than that of the Barents Sea. The last 3 places in depth are occupied by: Beloe (maximum depth - 350 meters, average depth - 67 meters), Chukotskoye (maximum depth - 160 meters, average - 71 meters) and East Siberian (maximum depth - 155 meters, average - 54 meters ) seas.
Pacific Seas
Three seas Pacific Ocean, which wash Russia from the east, are the largest and deepest. Their average depth reaches 1354 meters, which is 7 times greater than the average depth of the seas of the Arctic Ocean. This group includes the seas: Bering, Okhotsk and Japan.
These seas are separated from each other by the Kamchatka Peninsula and Sakhalin Island. The eastern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula is washed directly by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. It can also be noted that these seas are the boundary between the largest continent and the ocean of the planet.
The deepest sea of the entire group is the Bering Sea. Its maximum depth reaches 4151 meters, and the average depth is 1640 meters. In winter, its temperature ranges from -1.5°C to +3°C, and in summer - from +4°C to +11°C. This sea is mixed, continental-marginal type.
The Sea of Japan is in the middle, with a maximum depth of 3699 meters and an average depth of 1535 meters. In winter, the temperature of this sea ranges from 0 to +4°C, in summer - from +18 to +25°C. On last place the Sea of Okhotsk juts out. Its maximum depth is 3521 meters, and the average is only 821 meters. In winter its temperature ranges from -1.5 to +1.8°C, and in summer 6-7°C.
Seas of the Atlantic Ocean
This group includes three seas: the Black, Baltic and Azov. They reach deep into the continent and wash small areas of it, and their connection with the ocean passes through numerous straits. All these seas are inland.
The Black Sea is the warmest of the seas washing the shores of our Motherland. Its temperature in winter is from 0 to 7°C, and in summer 25-26°C, its maximum depth reaches 2210 meters, and the average depth is 1315 meters. It lies in a tectonic depression, which is bordered by the continental slope. Communication with the ocean is through the seas: Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean and the straits: Bosphorus, Dardanelles, Gibraltar.
The Baltic Sea is the westernmost of the seas bordering Russia. Its maximum depth is very small and reaches only 470 meters, and its average depth is 51 meters. In winter, its temperature fluctuates around -1°C, and in summer - from +17 to +17°C. The Baltic Sea is located in a tectonic trough at the junction of the Baltic shield with the Russian plate. It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the shallow Danish Straits and the North Sea.
The Sea of Azov is the smallest and shallowest sea on the planet. Its maximum depth is only 13 meters, and the average is 7 meters. An inland shelf sea, the connection with the ocean is carried out through the Black Sea, into which it flows through the shallow Kerch Strait. Its depth increases slowly and smoothly as it moves away from the coast. In winter, the temperature fluctuates around 0°C, and in summer it reaches +23-24°C.
Caspian sea-lake
A sea that has repeatedly lost and restored its connection with the World Ocean. The most recent transformation of the Caspian Sea ended with the fact that, as a result of uplifts in the area of the Kuma-Mychin depression, it was finally isolated and became completely part of the drainless Eurasian basin.
Its area reaches 371 thousand km^2, and its depth reaches 1025 meters. At the moment, the Caspian Sea is the largest closed sea. Sea temperature in winter ranges from 0 to +10°C, and in summer - +24 - +28°C. Its hydrological regime and organic world depend on nature and its changes within the sea basin itself, in particular the Volga basin, located entirely within our Motherland.
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Barencevo sea
The Barents Sea washes the coasts of Russia and Norway and is limited north coast Europe and the archipelagos of Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (Fig. 39). The sea is located within the continental shallows and is characterized by depths of 300-400 m. The southern part of the sea has a predominantly leveled topography, the northern part is characterized by the presence of both hills (Central, Perseus), and depressions and trenches.The climate of the Barents Sea is formed under the influence of warm air masses from the Atlantic and cold Arctic air from the Arctic Ocean, which causes great variability in weather conditions. This leads to significant temperature variations in different parts of the water area. In the coldest month of the year—February—the air temperature varies from 25 °C in the north to -4 °C in the southwest. Cloudy weather usually prevails over the sea.
The salinity of the surface layer of water in the open sea throughout the year is 34.7-35%o in the southwest, 33-34%o in the east, and 32-33%o in the north. In the coastal strip of the sea in spring and summer, salinity drops to 30-32% o, by the end of winter it increases to 34-34.5%.
In the water balance of the Barents Sea great importance has water exchange with neighboring water areas. Surface currents form a counterclockwise gyre. The role of the warm North Cape Current (a branch of the Gulf Stream) is especially important in the formation of the hydrometeorological regime. In the central part of the sea there is a system of intracircular currents. The circulation of sea waters changes under the influence of changes in winds and water exchange with adjacent seas. Along the coasts, the importance of tidal currents increases, characterized as semidiurnal, the highest height of which is 6.1 m near the Kola Peninsula.
Ice cover reaches its greatest extent in April, when at least 75% of the sea surface is occupied by floating ice. However, its southwestern part remains ice-free in all seasons due to the influence of warm currents. The northwestern and northeastern margins of the sea are completely free of ice only in warm years.
The biodiversity of the Barents Sea stands out among all the waters of the Arctic Ocean, which is associated with natural and climatic conditions. There are 114 species of fish found here, 20 of which are of commercial importance: cod, haddock, herring, sea bass, halibut and others. The benthos is very diverse, among which are common sea urchins, echinoderms, invertebrates. Introduced back in the 30s. XX century Kamchatka crab adapted to new conditions and began to reproduce intensively on the shelf. The coasts abound with bird colonies. Large mammals include the polar bear, beluga whale, and harp seal.
Haddock, a fish of the cod family, is an important fishery species in the Barents Sea region. Haddock makes long-distance feeding and spawning migrations. Haddock eggs are carried by currents over long distances from their spawning grounds. Fry and juveniles of haddock live in the water column, often hiding from predators under the domes (bells) of large jellyfish. Adult fish lead a predominantly bottom-dwelling lifestyle.
Serious ecological problems in the Barents Sea are associated with contamination by radioactive waste from Norwegian processing plants, as well as with the flow of contaminated water from the land surface. The greatest pollution with oil products is typical for the Kola, Teribersky and Motovsky bays.
White Sea
White Sea belongs to the category of internal and is the smallest among the seas washing Russia (Fig. 40). It washes the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula and is separated from the Barents Sea by a line connecting Capes Svyatoy Nos and Kanin Nos. The sea is replete with small islands, among which the most famous are Solovetsky. The shores are indented by numerous bays. The bottom relief is complex; in the central part of the sea there is a closed basin with depths of 100–200 m, separated from the Barents Sea by a threshold with shallow depths. The soils in shallow water are a mixture of pebbles and sand, turning into clayey silt at depths.
The geographical position of the White Sea determines climatic conditions, where features of both marine and continental climates appear. In winter, cloudy weather sets in with low temperatures and heavy snowfalls, and the climate in the northern part of the sea is somewhat warmer, which is due to the influence of warm air and water masses from the Atlantic. IN summer time The White Sea is characterized by cool, rainy weather with average temperatures of +8–+13°C.
The influx of fresh water and insignificant water exchange with neighboring water areas have determined the low salinity of the sea, which is about 26%o near the coasts and 31%o in the deep zones. In the centric part, an annular flow is formed, directed counterclockwise. Tidal currents are semi-diurnal in nature and range from 0.6 to 3 m. In narrow areas, the height of the tide can reach 7 m and penetrate high up the rivers up to 120 km (Northern Dvina). Despite small area, storm activity is developed in the sea, especially in the autumn period - the White Sea freezes annually for 6-7 months. Fast ice forms near the coast, the central part is covered with floating ice, reaching a thickness of 0.4 m, and in severe winters - up to 1.5 m.
The diversity of ecosystems in the White Sea is much lower than in the neighboring Barents Sea, however, various algae and bottom invertebrates are found here. Among marine mammals, the harp seal, beluga whale, and ringed seal should be noted. In the waters of the White Sea there are important commercial fish: navaga, White Sea herring, smelt, salmon, cod.
In 1928, Soviet hydrobiologist K.M. Deryugin noted in the White Sea the presence of a number of endemic forms due to isolation, as well as a shortage of species compared to the Barents Sea, which is associated with the peculiarities of the hydrodynamic regime. Over time, it became clear that there are no endemics in the White Sea, all of them are either reduced to synonyms, or are still found in other seas.
The water area is of great transport importance, as a result of which the ecological condition of certain areas of the water area is deteriorating, especially associated with the transportation of petroleum products and chemical raw materials.
Kara Sea
The Kara Sea is the coldest sea washing the shores of Russia (Fig. 41). It is limited to the coast of Eurasia in the south and the islands: Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Heiberg. The sea is located on the shelf, where depths range from 50 to 100 m. In shallow water, sandy soil dominates, and the gutters are covered with silt.The Kara Sea is characterized by a marine polar climate, which is due to its geographical location. Weather conditions are variable and storms are frequent. This area recorded the lowest temperature that can be set at sea: -45-50 °C. In summer, an area of high pressure forms over the water area, the air warms up from +2-+6 °C in the north and west to + 18-+20 °C on the coast. However, even in summer period Snow may occur.
The salinity of the sea near the coasts is about 34%o, which is associated with good mixing and uniform temperatures; in the inland areas the salinity increases to 35%o. At river mouths, especially when ice melts, salinity decreases sharply and the water becomes closer to fresh.
The circulation of the waters of the Kara Sea has complex nature, which is associated with the formation of cyclonic water cycles and river flow of Siberian rivers. The tides are semidiurnal and their height does not exceed 80 cm.
The sea is covered with ice almost all year round. In some areas, multi-year ice is found, up to 4 m thick. Fast ice forms along the Zeregovaya line, the formation of which begins in September.
The Kara Sea contains predominantly Arctic ecosystems; however, during the period of global warming, accumulations of boreal and boreal-Arctic species are observed. The greatest biodiversity is confined to upwelling zones, the edge of sea ice, river estuaries, areas of underwater hydrothermal fluids and the tops of the seafloor relief. Commercial concentrations of cod, flounder, black halibut, and whitefish have been recorded in the water area. Among the environmentally unfavorable factors leading to disruption of ecosystems, it should be noted pollution with heavy metals and petroleum products. Also in the water area there are sarcophagi of radioactive reactors, the burial of which was carried out in the second half of the 20th century.
Arctic omul is a semi-anadromous fish and an important commercial species. It spawns in the Yenisei River, and feeds in the coastal zone of the Kara Sea. According to one hypothesis, the omul could reach Lake Baikal, the cause of which is a glacier. Because of the glacier, the omul was unable to return to its “historical homeland”, giving rise to a branch of the Baikal omul.
Laptev sea
The Laptev Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located between the Taimyr Peninsula and the Severnaya Zemlya islands in the west and the New Siberian Islands in the east (Fig. 42). This is one of the deepest northern seas, the greatest depth is 3385 m. The coast is heavily indented. The southern part of the sea is shallow with depths up to 50 m, bottom sediments represented by sand, silt with admixtures of pebbles and boulders. The northern part is a deep-sea basin, the bottom of which is covered with silt.The Laptev Sea is one of the harshest seas in the Arctic Ocean. Climatic conditions are close to continental. In winter, the area of high atmospheric pressure, which determines low temperatures air (-26-29 °C) and slight cloudiness. Summer area high pressure gives way to low temperatures, while the air temperature increases, reaching its highest point in August at +1-+5 °C, but in closed spaces temperatures can reach higher values. For example, in Tiksi Bay a temperature of +32.5 °C was recorded.
Water salinity varies from 15%o in the south to 28%o in the north. Near the mouth areas, salinity does not exceed 10%. Salinity increases with depth, reaching 33%. Surface currents form a cyclonic gyre. Tides are semidiurnal, up to 0.5 m high.
The cold climate causes active development of ice in the water area, which can persist throughout the year. Hundreds of kilometers of shallow water are occupied by fast ice; in open waters there are floating ice and icebergs.
The ecosystems of the Laptev Sea are not distinguished by species diversity, which is associated with extreme natural conditions. The ichthyofauna has only 37 species, and the bottom fauna is about 500. Fishing is developed mainly along the coasts and at river mouths. However, the Laptev Sea is of great transport importance. The port of Tiksi is of greatest importance. Ecological state Some areas of the sea are assessed as catastrophic. In coastal waters, there is an increased content of phenol, petroleum products, and organic substances. Most of the pollution comes from river waters.
From time immemorial, the Laptev Sea has been the main “workshop” for ice production in the Arctic. An international group of researchers within the Polynya project studied the climate in the water area for several years, as a result of which it was noted that since 2002, the water temperature has increased by 2 °C, which will inevitably affect its ecological state.
East-Siberian Sea
The East Siberian Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island (see Fig. 42). The coasts are flat, slightly indented, and in some places there are sandy and silty dry areas. In the eastern part beyond the mouth of the Kolyma there are rocky cliffs. The sea is shallow, the greatest depth is 358 m. The northern border coincides with the edge of the continental shallows.The bottom topography is leveled and has a slight slope from southwest to northeast. Two underwater trenches stand out in the relief, which are presumably former river valleys. The soil is represented by silt, pebbles, and boulders.
The proximity to the North Pole determines the severity of the climate, which should be classified as polar marine. It is also worth noting the influence on the climate of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, from where cyclonic air masses enter. The air temperature in January over the region is -28-30 °C, the weather is clear and calm. In summer, an area of high pressure forms over the sea, and low pressure over the adjacent land, which leads to the emergence strong winds, the speed of which is maximum at the end of summer, when the western part of the water area turns into a zone of strong storms, while the temperature does not exceed +2-+3 °C. This section of the Northern Sea Route becomes the most dangerous during this period.
The salinity of water near river mouths is no more than 5%o, increasing towards the northern outskirts to 30%o. With depth, salinity increases to 32%.
Even in summer the sea is not free of ice. They drift in a northwesterly direction, obeying the circulation of water masses. As the activity of the cyclonic gyre intensifies, ice penetrates into the water area from the northern borders. The tides in the East Siberian Sea are regular, semi-diurnal. They are most clearly expressed in the northwest and north; near the southern coasts the tide height is insignificant, up to 25 cm.
The combination of natural and climatic conditions influenced the formation of ecosystems in the East Siberian Sea. Biodiversity is much lower compared to other northern seas. In the estuary areas there are schools of white fish, polar cod, Arctic char, whitefish, and grayling. There are also marine mammals: walruses, seals, polar bears. Cold-loving brackish-water forms are common in the central parts.
East Siberian cod (ninefin) (Fig. 43) lives near the coast in brackish waters and enters river mouths. The biology of the species has hardly been studied. Spawning occurs in summer in warm coastal waters. It is an object of fishing.
Chukchi Sea
The Chukchi Sea is located between the Chukotka and Alaska peninsulas (Fig. 44). The Long Strait connects it with the East Siberian Sea, in the area of Cape Barrow it borders on the Beaufort Sea, and the Bering Strait connects it with the Bering Sea. The International Date Line runs through the Chukchi Sea. More than 50% of the sea area is occupied by depths of up to 50 m. There are shallows with depths of up to 13 m. The bottom relief is complicated by two underwater canyons with depths from 90 to 160 m. The coast is characterized by slight ruggedness. The soils are represented by loose deposits of sand, silt, and gravel. The climate of the sea is greatly influenced by the proximity of the North Pole and the Pacific Ocean. In summer, anticyclonic circulation occurs. The sea is characterized by high storm activity.
The circulation of water masses is determined by the interaction of cold Arctic and warm Pacific waters. A cold current passes along the Eurasian coast, carrying water from the East Siberian Sea. The warm Alaskan Current enters the Chukchi Sea through the Bering Strait, heading towards the shores of the Alaska Peninsula. Tides are semidiurnal. The salinity of the sea varies from west to east from 28 to 32%. Salinity decreases near melting ice edges and river mouths.
The sea is covered with ice for most of the year. In the southern part of the sea, clearing of ice occurs during 2-3 warm months. However, floating ice brings it to the coast of Chukotka from the East Siberian Sea. The north is covered multi-year ice more than 2 m thick.
The penetration of warm waters of the Pacific Ocean is the main reason for some increase species diversity Chukchi Sea. Boreal species are joining the typical Arctic species. 946 species live here. There are navaga, grayling, char, and polar cod. The most common marine mammals are polar bears, walruses, and whales. The location at a sufficient distance from industrial centers determines the absence of serious changes in marine ecosystems. Affects the ecological picture of the water area Negative influence the flow of petroleum products along the Northern Sea Route, as well as waters containing aerosol materials coming from the coast of North America.
The Chukchi Sea serves as a link between the ports of the Far East, the mouths of Siberian rivers and the European part of Russia, as well as between the Pacific ports of Canada and the USA and the mouth of the Mackenzie River.
1 Position of the Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the coldest ocean on the planet. Located within the Arctic Circle, it washes the northern shores of Eurasia, Greenland and North America.
SquareThe ocean area is 14.75 million km², the volume of water is 18.07 million km³. Average depth - 1225 m, greatest depth - 5527 mGreenland Sea . Most of the bottom relief of the Arctic Ocean is occupied by shelf (more than 45% of the ocean floor) and underwater continental margins (up to 70% of the bottom area). The ocean is usually divided into three vast water areas: the Arctic Basin, the North European Basin, and the Canadian Basin. Thanks to its polar geographical position ice cover in the central part of the ocean it persists throughout the year, although it is in a mobile state.Territories adjacent to the Arctic Ocean
Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Canada, Norway, Russia and United States of America . The legal status of the ocean is not directly regulated at the international level. It is fragmentarily determined by the national legislation of the Arctic countries and international legal agreements. During most of the year, the Arctic Ocean is used for maritime transport, which is carried out by Russia viaNorthern Sea Route , USA and Canada byNorthwestern .2 Relief of the ocean floor
Before World War II, very little was known about the structure of the Arctic Ocean floor. Since then, extensive information has accumulated thanks to expeditions on icebreakers that went far into the pack ice, to submarines who worked under thick sea ice and on drifting ice floes. Structurally, a deep central basin can be distinguished in the Arctic Ocean, surrounded by marginal seas: Norwegian, Greenland, Lincoln, Chukchi, East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, Barents and White. The Beaufort Sea is part of the ocean floor.
In terms of size, the Arctic Ocean is the smallest in the world: its area is 14.75 million km 2 . Almost half of this area falls on the shelf, which in the Arctic Ocean reaches its maximum width and in some places Russian Arctic extends 1300 km from the coast. The shelf off the northern coast of European Russia is exceptionally deep and highly rugged, probably as a result of the activity of Pleistocene glaciers. The central part of the ocean is occupied by a deep-sea oval-shaped basin (approx. 1130 km along the short axis and 2250 km along the true one). It is divided into two parts by a large underwater mountain structure - the Lomonosov Ridge, discovered by the Soviet polar expedition in 1948. This ridge stretches from O. Ellesmere off the coast of Canada to the New Siberian Islands. Between the Lomonosov ridge and Eurasian The shelf is located in an abyssal basin with a depth of 4000–4600 m (which corresponds to the average depth of the World Ocean). On the other side of the ridge there is another basin with a depth of approx. 3400 m. The greatest depth of the Arctic Ocean (5527 m) was recorded in the Greenland Sea.
The Arctic Ocean connects to the Pacific Ocean through the narrow Bering Strait, which separates Alaska from the northeastern tip of Asia. The border with the Atlantic Ocean passes through the Norwegian Sea, located between Europe and Greenland.The unique structure of the bottom topography of the Arctic Ocean lies primarily in the very wide development of the shelf and, in general, the underwater margins of the continents. This is what explains the shallow average depth of the ocean - about 40% of its area has depths of less than 200 m. The shelf occupies 50.3% of the area of the Arctic Ocean bottom. The Arctic Ocean is orographically heterogeneous. Here, first of all, the Arctic basin stands out. It covers the entire vast area around the North Pole. It is separated from the second by the continental slope of the Barents Sea and the 80th parallel between Spitsbergen and Greenland large element Arctic Ocean - North European Basin. The Arctic Ocean includes the waters of the straits of the Canadian Archipelago, Hudson Bay and the Baffin Sea. Let's call this third component ocean by the Canadian basin.
3 Climate
Arctic Ocean is located in the polar zone, which determines its climatic conditions. The existence of huge masses of ice (in the central part of the Arctic basin the ice cover remains throughout the year) further increases the severity climate , due to the featuressolar radiation within the polar zone.
Throughout the year, an anticyclonic process occurs over the Arctic Ocean and cyclonic activity develops. In the lower layers of the atmosphere, polar anticyclone well expressed only in winter. In summer it is much weaker, and in July its center shifts to the Bering Strait, and in August it again shifts to the west. Cyclonic activity, on the contrary, is intense in summer. As a result, the seasonal cycleatmospheric pressure over the Arctic Ocean is clearly expressed. Winter months are November-April, summer months are June-August. In addition to cyclones originating over the Arctic Ocean, cyclones from outside often come here, especially in autumn, and penetrate into the ocean area from all directions, but mainly from Barents Sea.
Due to cyclonic activity, the wind regime over the Arctic Ocean is unstable, but strong winds(more than 15 m/s) are rare. average speed wind fluctuates between 4-6 m/s. In coastal areas, the seasonal variation in wind direction is noticeably pronounced. Its speed and number of days with storms caused mainly by cyclones of Atlantic or Pacific origin, they increase significantly here, especially in winter.
The Greenland anticyclone, which is very stable throughout the year, also affects the local atmospheric circulation, promoting the formation of winds that, in their direction, enhance the runoff effect of water discharge from the Arctic toAtlantic Ocean .
The average air temperature in the winter months in different areas of the Arctic Ocean ranges from + 3 to - 40 °C, in the summer - from 0 to + 10 °C.
Cloudiness, especially low cloudiness, has a pronounced annual cycle. In summer the probability of low cloudiness reaches 90-95, in winter 40-50%. Longer clearings occur in winter.
Very typical for summer weather fog. In some months it is observed daily, sometimes lasting 4-5 days.
Precipitation falls mainly in the form of snow, rarely as rain, only in the summer months and most often with snow. The amount of precipitation in the Arctic basin is 75-250 mm per year, in the North European basin it is slightly higher.
The snow cover is low and its distribution is extremely uneven. In summer, the snow on the ice of the Arctic Ocean melts greatly, in some years almost completely.
The climate of the central regions of the ocean is milder (marine) compared to the climate of the marginal regions adjacent to the shores of Asia andNorth America . The ocean is constantly receiving warm waters Atlantic Ocean, which are a powerful causative agent of atmospheric processes over the vast waters of the Arctic Ocean. The warming influence of Atlantic waters throughatmospheric circulation affects much more than through direct heat transfer and release to cold Arctic waters.
4 Animal vegetable world
In those parts of the ocean that all year round covered with ice, the animal and plant life is very scarce, since the ice poorly transmits light, preventing the growth of plants. In the more open parts of the ocean, seals, polar bears, whales and many species of fish are found.
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Education
What continents is washed by the Arctic Ocean? Its features
March 24, 2016This ocean is recognized as the smallest in area and depth. It is located in the central part of the Arctic. Its location is the key to answering the question of which continents are washed by the Arctic Ocean. Its second name is Polar, and its waters reach the shores of the North American and Eurasian continents.
Characteristics of ocean conditions
The area occupied by the Arctic Ocean is small, and it does not interfere with the emergence of large quantity islands. And these are not small rocks that come to the surface, but continental archipelagos of large areas (Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen, Greenland, etc.).
The continents washed by the Arctic Ocean are the northernmost on the planet. Cold waters are partly warmed by warm currents that come from the Atlantic, bypassing Northern Europe. A slightly heated current comes from the Pacific Ocean, passing through the Bering Strait. The circulation of warm air masses also has a certain influence. IN winter period The ocean becomes encased in a thick ice crust, and the temperature usually does not rise above -40 ºC.
What continents is washed by the Arctic Ocean?
While studying the Earth's watery shell, you cannot miss the space that connects the two continents. The Polar Ocean is bounded by the following continents: Eurasia and North America. Access to other oceans occurs through straits between continents.
The main part of the water area consists of seas, most of which are marginal and only one is internal. Many islands are located near continents. The Arctic Ocean washes continents whose shores are located beyond the Arctic Circle. Its waters are located in the harsh Arctic climate zone.
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Ocean climate
In geography lessons, schoolchildren are explained which continents are washed by the Arctic Ocean and what its climatic features are. Arctic air is much warmer than Antarctic air. Because the polar waters receive heat from the adjacent oceans. With the last of them, interaction is less active. As a result, it turns out that the Northern Hemisphere is “warmed up” by the Arctic Ocean.
The influence of air currents from the west and southwest led to the formation of the North Atlantic Current. Water masses are transported parallel to the coast of the Eurasian continent in an easterly direction. They are met by streams passing through the Bering Strait from the Pacific Ocean.
Famous natural feature these latitudes - the presence of an ice crust on the waters. The Polar Ocean washes the shores of the continents of the northern hemisphere, where low temperatures prevail beyond the Arctic Circle. Ice coating also occurs due to the low concentration of salts in surface layer water. The reason for desalination is abundant river flows from the continents.
Economic use
What continents is washed by the Arctic Ocean? North America and Eurasia. However, it is of greater economic importance for countries that have access to it. The harsh local climate hinders the search for mineral deposits. But, despite this, scientists managed to explore hydrocarbon deposits on the shelf of some northern seas, as well as off the coast of Canada and Alaska.
The fauna and flora of the ocean are not rich. Near the Atlantic, fishing and seaweed production are carried out, as well as seal hunting. Whaling ships operate within strict quotas. The Northern Sea Route (NSR) began to be developed only in the 20th century. Using it, ships can get from Europe to Far East. Its role in the development of the Siberian region is great. Forest resources and ore are transported from there by sea, and food and equipment are delivered to the region.
The duration of navigation is 2-4 months a year. Icebreakers are helping to extend this period in some areas. EMS work in Russian Federation provide various services: polar aviation, a complex of weather observation stations.
History of the study
What continents is washed by the Arctic Ocean? What are the weather and natural conditions beyond the Arctic Circle? Polar explorers were looking for answers to these and many questions. The first trips by sea were made on wooden boats. People hunted, fished, and studied the features of northern navigation.
Western sailors in the polar ocean tried to explore a short route from Europe to India and China. The expedition, which began in 1733 and lasted a decade, made a great contribution. The feat of scientists and navigators cannot be underestimated: they mapped the outlines of the coastline from Pechora to the Bering Strait. Information about flora, fauna and weather conditions is collected in late XIX century. In the first half of the next century, passage through the ocean was accomplished during one navigation. The sailors took measurements of depths, the thickness of the ice crust and meteorological observations.