Yablokov I. Fundamentals of religious studies

Name: Confucius

Date of Birth: 551 BC e.

Age: 72 years old

Date of death: 479 BC e.

Activity: thinker and philosopher

Family status: widower

Confucius: biography

The name of this philosopher is familiar to everyone. Confucius is the most famous Chinese. The teachings of the ancient thinker form the basis of state ideology. It influenced life in East Asia. Confucianism for a long time was not inferior in importance to Buddhism in China. Although issues of religion are not addressed in the philosophy of Confucianism, the name of Confucius was inscribed in the religious pantheon.

Confucius is an innovator in the idea of ​​​​building a moral, harmonious society. Following the rules of philosophy, a person will be in harmony with himself and the world around him. The popularity of Confucius’s aphorisms and judgments has not faded even 20 centuries after his death.

Childhood and youth

The biography of the Kun family, of which Confucius is a descendant, is thoroughly described by historians of medieval China. Confucius is a descendant of Wei Tzu, the general of the Zhou Dynasty Emperor Chen-wang. For his loyalty to Emperor Wei Tzu, he received the principality of Song and the title of Zhu Hou as a gift. By the time Confucius was born, the Wei Tzu family had already become impoverished and moved to the kingdom of Lu in northern China. Confucius' father Shuliang He had two wives. The first gave birth to nine daughters. The second gave birth to a son, but the weak boy died.

In 551 BC. 63-year-old Shuliang He was given birth to an heir by his concubine Yan Zhengzai, who was barely seventeen at that time. According to legend, she went up the hill to give birth, under Mulberry tree. At the moment of the baby’s birth, a spring gushed out from under the ground, in which he was washed. Afterwards the water stopped flowing. The father did not live long after the birth of his son. When Confucius was one and a half years old, Shuliang He left this world. Yan Zhengzai, who was disliked by her older wives, left her husband's house and moved closer to her family, to the city of Qufu. Yan Zhengzai and the boy lived independently. Confucius had to experience hardships from childhood.

Confucius's mother inspired the boy that he should be a worthy successor to the family. Although the small family lived in poverty, the boy worked hard, mastering the knowledge necessary for an aristocrat in China. Particular attention was paid to the arts. Diligence in his studies bore fruit: 20-year-old Confucius was put in charge of the barns of the Ji family in the Principality of Lu in eastern China. And then they put him in charge of the cattle.

Teaching

Confucius lived during the decline of the Zhou Empire. The emperor gradually lost power, handing it over to the rulers of individual principalities. The patriarchal structure of the state fell into decay. Internecine wars led the people to impoverishment.

In 528 BC. e. Yan Zhengzai, mother of Confucius, died. Following the tradition of mourning for a relative, he retired for three years. This departure allowed the philosopher to study ancient books and create a philosophical treatise on the rules of relationships in building a harmonious state.

When the philosopher was 44 years old, he was appointed to the post of ruler of the residence of the Principality of Lu. For some time he was the head of the judicial service. From the heights of his post, Confucius appealed to those in power to punish the people only in case of disobedience, and in other cases - to “explain to the people their duties and teach them.”

Confucius worked for some time as an official of several principalities. But the impossibility of coming to terms with the new state policy forced him to resign. He began to travel around China with his students, preaching philosophical teachings.

Only at the age of 60 did Confucius return to his native Qufu and did not leave until his death. Confucius spent the rest of his life with his students, working on systematizing the wise book heritage of China: the Book of Songs, the Book of Changes and other volumes Chinese philosophy. Of the classical heritage of Confucius himself, the authenticity of only one has been reliably established - “Spring and Autumn”.

Historians of China count about 3 thousand of the philosopher’s students, but only 26 are reliably known. Yan-yuan is considered to be Confucius’s favorite student.

Based on quotes from the ancient philosopher’s sayings, his students compiled a book of sayings “Lun Yu” (“Conversations and Judgments”). “Da-xue” (“Great Teaching”) was created - a book about the path of human improvement, “Zhong-yun” (“Book of the Middle”) - about the path to achieving harmony.

Confucianism

During the reign of the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC - 3rd century AD), the teachings of Confucius were elevated to the rank of ideology of the Celestial Empire. At this time, Confucianism became a pillar of Chinese morality and shaped the way of life of the Chinese people. Confucianism played a decisive role in shaping the face of Chinese civilization.

The basis of Confucian philosophy is the construction of a society whose basis is harmony. Each member of this society stands in its place and performs its assigned function. The basis of relations between the top and bottom is loyalty. The philosophy is based on the five main qualities inherent in a righteous person: respect, justice, ritual, wisdom, decency.

« Ren" - "respect", "generosity", "kindness", a fundamental category in Chinese philosophy. This is the main of the five virtues that a person should possess. “Ren” includes three main components: love and compassion for people, right attitude two people with each other, a person’s attitude to the world around him, including to inanimate objects. A person who has comprehended “Ren” is in balance with the world around him, fulfilling the “golden rule of morality”: “do not impose on others what you do not want for yourself.” The symbol of “Ren” is a tree.

« AND" - "justice". A person who follows “I” does this not for selfish reasons, but because the “I” path is the only correct one. It is based on reciprocity: your parents raised you, and you honor them in gratitude. “I” balances “Ren”, giving a person firmness in confronting egoism. A noble man seeks justice. The symbol "I" is metal.

« Lee" - "ritual" means "decency", "ethics", "ceremonies". The Chinese philosopher invested in this concept the ability, through rituals of behavior, to smooth out conflicts that interfere with the state of world unity. A person who has mastered "Li" not only respects his elders, but also understands their role in society. The symbol of "Li" is fire.

« Zhi" - "wisdom". “Zhi” is the quality of a noble person. “Common sense” distinguishes a person from an animal, “Zhi” frees one from doubts, not giving free rein to stubbornness. Fights stupidity. The symbol in Confucianism is water.

« Xin" - "reliability". The one who feels good is considered trustworthy. Another meaning is conscientiousness and ease. “Xin” balances “ritual”, preventing insincerity. "Blue" corresponds to Earth.

Confucius developed a scheme for achieving the goal. According to philosophy, if you follow nine main rules, you can become a successful person:

1. Go towards your goal, even if slowly, without stopping.
2. Keep your tool sharp: your luck depends on how well you prepare.
3. Do not change your goal: only the methods of achieving it are not important.
4. Do only what is truly important and interesting to you, making every effort.
5. Communicate only with those who are developing: they will lead you.
6. Work on yourself, do good, the world around you is a mirror of your inner self.
7. Don't let insults lead you astray; negativity does not attract positivity to you.
8. Control your anger: you have to pay for everything.
9. Observe people: everyone can teach you something or warn you.

In contrast to Confucianism, a number of philosophical schools are widespread in China. There are about a hundred directions in total. The main place is occupied by Taoism, founded by Lao Tzu and Zhuang Ji.

In his philosophical teachings, Lao Tzu emphasizes our inextricable connection with the cosmos. For every person there is only one path, destined from above. It is unusual for people to influence the world order. The path of humanity is humility. Lao Tzu urges a person not to try to influence the course of events around him. Taoism is a philosophy with a mystical origin that appeals to human emotions. Confucianism, with its rationalism, addresses the human mind.

In Europe, they learned about Confucius in the middle of the 17th century - with the advent of fashion for everything related to Eastern culture. The first edition of Lun Yu in Latin was published in 1687. At this time, Jesuit missionary work was gaining momentum, including in China. The first visitors from the Middle Kingdom arrived in Europe, which fueled the public's interest in the unknown and exotic.

Personal life

At the age of 19, Confucius married Kikoan Shi, a girl from a noble family. The first-born Li, better known as Bo-Yu, was born into the family. Then Kikoan Shi gave birth to a daughter.

Death

At the age of 66, the philosopher was widowed. At the end of his life, he devoted all his time to his students in his home in the city of Qufu. Confucius died in 479 BC. e., at 72 years old. Before his death, he fell into a seven-day sleep.

In the city of Qufu (Shandong Province, Eastern China), a temple was built on the site of the house of an ancient thinker. After the construction of adjacent buildings and extensions, the structure grew into a temple complex. The burial place of Confucius and his disciples has been an object of pilgrimage for 2 thousand years. In 1994, UNESCO included the temple complex, the House of Confucius and the forest around it in the “List of World Cultural Heritage Sites”.

The second place after the temple in Qufu is the Beijing Temple of Confucius. It opened the doors in 1302. The area of ​​the complex is 20,000 m². There are four courtyards on the territory, standing on a north-south axis. In the first courtyard there are 198 tablets, on the stone of which are carved 51,624 names of people who have received the jinshi degree (highest academic degree imperial state examinations). In the Beijing Temple there are 189 stone steles on which Confucius’s “Thirteen Books” are carved.

Memory

A year after the death of Confucius, celebrations in memory of the great philosopher began in China. Commemorative events in the Middle Kingdom resumed in 1984, at the same time - the International Festival of Confucian Culture. In China, congresses are held on the topic of Confucianism. For achieving success in the educational field, they are awarded the Confucius Prize. In 2009, China celebrated the 2560th anniversary of the thinker.

Since 2004, Confucius Institutes have been opening around the world. The idea behind the creation is to popularize Chinese culture and language. Confucius Institutes train students and teachers in China. They organize meetings dedicated to China, conferences, and conduct the HSK language test. In addition to “institutes,” “classes” of a certain profile are founded: medicine, business, etc. Funding and support are provided by the Ministry of Education of China together with sinology centers.

In 2010, the biography film “Confucius” was released. The main role was played by Chow Yun-fatom. The project caused a lot of controversy among viewers and critics. The Chinese felt that the actor playing Confucius had acted too much in action and martial arts films. He will not be able to correctly convey the image of a great teacher, but will turn the philosopher into a “kung fu hero.” The audience was also concerned about the actor's Cantonese language (Chow Yun-fat is from Hong Kong), since the film was shot in Mandarin.

The direct heir of Confucius, Kong Jian, sued the film company, demanding that the “romantic” scene of a conversation between Confucius and Nan Tzu be removed from the film.

Confucius tried on so many images throughout the history of China that sometimes causes protest among ethnographers. There are many ironic parables and anecdotes associated with the name of the philosopher. Thus, the Chinese historian Gu Jiegang advised to “take one Confucius at a time.”

Confucius Quotes

• “Happiness is when you are understood, great happiness is when you are loved, real happiness is when you love”
• “Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.”
• “Three things never come back - time, word, opportunity. Therefore: don’t waste time, choose your words, don’t miss the opportunity.”
• “If they spit in your back, it means you are ahead”

Bibliography

• "Conversations and Judgments"
• "Great Teaching"
• "The Book of the Middle"
• "Confucius on Love"
• “Lunyu. Sayings"
• "Confucius. Lessons of Wisdom"
• "Confucius. Sayings. Book of Songs and Hymns"
• "Confucius on Business"

At the same time, all Sinological researchers define the religion of China as "Three Teachings": Confucianism(zhu jia), Taoism(dao jia) and Buddhism(fo jia) .

Traditionally, textbooks of religious studies follow the above enumeration and, therefore, include Confucianism in the field of religion. This principle was also used in compiling this chapter.

Guided by the features inherent in the religious worldview, which were outlined earlier in the introductory chapter, we can conclude that, despite its outwardly secular nature, Confucianism fully complies with the basic criteria of religious teaching. Its content:

– refers to the sphere of human spiritual activity;

– involves experiences of a mystical nature, as a result of which the internal filling of human life should be harmonized;

– affirms the existence of the spiritual world in the form of Heaven (Tian) and the host of ancestors;

– recognizes the need to perform a ritual, in particular sacrifices, that is, it contains cult practice.

Term "Confucianism" is of European origin. In the Celestial Empire itself, this teaching is known as Zhu Jia, which literally means "teaching of the sages/thinkers", or "school of scholars". The European term comes from the name of a person who had a fundamental influence on the formation of the doctrine.

From surviving historical sources we can glean a lot of information about the life and work of Confucius. True, it is worth noting that some biographical data can hardly be considered reliable and are, rather, of a legendary, mythological nature.

Confucius: information about the life of the legendary teacher

Confucius- this is a Latinized version of the name Kong Fuzi(Chinese: “sage/scientist/philosopher [of the] Kun family”). Kun is a family name, and his own name was - Qiu.

The life time of Confucius is the era Chun Qiu(lit. “Spring and Autumn”), marked by a powerful political and social crisis in the Middle Kingdom and the decline of the Zhou state. Power supreme ruler- Zhou Wang - was extremely weakened, patriarchal norms of relationships between people were not observed, vassal kingdoms waged constant wars with each other, and within each specific principality there was a struggle for power among aristocrats.

Actually government system China was on the verge of collapse, and the logical outcome of this crisis was to be the final collapse of the country. Under these conditions, many members of the nobility lost their former influence and were even forced to seek their livelihood through private lessons, teaching traditional Chinese texts. One of these teachers was the founder of Confucianism.

Origin and first years of life

The philosopher came from an ancient, but impoverished family that had lost its political significance, which went back to the imperial Shang dynasty. Traditionally, his date of birth is considered 551 BC uh.

His father, Shuliang He, was an official of the Principality of Lu, and at the time of his son’s birth he was 63 years old. The situation was complicated by the fact that the mother of the newborn, Yan Zhengzai, was not the legal wife of Shuliang He, but only his 17-year-old concubine.

When Confucius was one and a half years old, he lost his father. The mother, fearing oppression from Shuliang He's widows and close relatives, left the home where the baby was born and moved to Qufu (eastern China, Shandong Province), where she soon married again.

Confucius grew up in very cramped conditions. “As a child, I was poor, so I had to do many despised activities,” the teacher later testified.

Despite this, he remained a cheerful child and loved to perform rituals for his dead ancestors. In the following words he himself described his life path: “At the age of fifteen I turned my thoughts to study. At thirty I became independent. At the age of forty I was freed from doubts. At the age of fifty I learned the will of heaven. At the age of sixty, I learned to distinguish truth from falsehood. At seventy years old, I began to follow the desires of my heart and did not violate the ritual."

Marriage

At the age of 19, Confucius married, however, apparently, he did not find happiness in marriage. At least we can judge this from his own words: “It is difficult to deal only with women and low people. If you get close to them, they stop listening. If you move away from them, you will inevitably experience hatred on their part.”

The name of his wife is unknown. Later sources tell us that she was from the Song kingdom. She gave birth to a son and a daughter to the sage. The descendants of Confucius live in China (Taiwan) to this day and are highly respected in society. It is significant that the teacher himself considered attachment to the hearth and family comfort unworthy of a true sage and noble husband(jun zi).

Subsequently, the philosopher led the life of a wanderer, often moving from place to place in search of opportunities to implement his teachings. Nothing is reported about his wife, from which researchers conclude that he actually left his wife.

By the time of his marriage, Confucius had perfectly mastered six arts, or six canons(liu and), knowledge of which was required from everyone educated person that time. This set of skills included an understanding of rituals, musical literacy, the ability to shoot a bow, drive a chariot, count and write.

Carier start

Confucius's government career began with the fact that he took the place of a barn keeper for one of the local feudal lords belonging to the Ji clan. Then he received a promotion, becoming a caretaker of livestock in the same aristocratic family.

Even then, his first students appeared.

According to the legendary information recorded by the Chinese historiographer Sima Qian (c. 135–86 BC) in his fundamental work “Shi-ji” (“Historical Notes”), in his rather young years Confucius visited the court of the dynasty for educational purposes Zhou, located in the city of Loyi (modern Luoyang). There he met an archivist named Li Er, better known as Lao Tzu. They had a meaningful conversation, as a result of which both interlocutors remained in admiration for each other, but retained the conviction that their opponent’s views were incorrect. This is not surprising if we keep in mind that both participants in the conversation eventually became spiritual leaders of two opposing teachings: Confucianism and Taoism.

In particular, Lao Tzu said the following about his interlocutor: “A mind that is bright and deeply delving into everything approaches destruction, because it loves to discuss others. He who knows a lot and talks broadly threatens his mortal existence, because he reveals evil in other people.”

Around 517 BC e. The ruling dynasty of the Lu kingdom was removed from power by other aristocratic families. Confucius was forced to flee with his patron to the kingdom of Qi. Here the new ruler received him and, after talking, gave him the Nisi inheritance, thereby introducing him into the community of feudal lords. In addition, the sovereign appointed him to a high post at court. However, the ruler’s opinion soon changed - Confucius was removed from office and, more than two years after leaving his native principality, was forced to return to Lu.

Teaching

Here begins a long period of Confucius’s life, lasting almost a decade and a half, when he is looking for an opportunity to continue his career, but his abilities remain unclaimed at court. At this time, he was actively engaged in editing ancient texts, which later formed the cultural backbone of Chinese civilization, and communicated with numerous students.

He conducts classes in the form of conversations and accepts people into his school for a very modest fee - “three bundles of dried meat”, but does not refuse teaching to anyone who is not able to pay even that price. As a result, among his students are not only representatives of aristocratic families, but also commoners. With this behavior, Confucius confirms his idea that the name of a noble man should be given not by origin, but by internal state a person - in accordance with the structure of his heart.

Finally, at 51, Confucius had the long-awaited opportunity to put his teachings into practice. In 501 BC. e. the ruler of Lu, Ding-gun, appointed him head of Zhongdu county.

Just a year later, the district came to a flourishing state, and the surrounding rulers began to imitate Confucius in methods of governance.

Seeing the success of his official, the ruler appoints him responsible for the organization public works (xiao sikong). To streamline the taxation system, the teacher divided all arable land into five categories and established tax rates depending on the quality of the plots. In other words, Confucius put into practice his idea of ​​socio-economic justice.

Civil service

The consequence of the positive changes was his appointment to the position yes sykou- an official responsible for the investigation of criminal and political crimes. After some time, Confucius took the place of the sovereign's closest adviser. In fact, he began to rule the entire kingdom of Lu. His dream came true: he was now the one jun zi- a noble husband who shows loyalty to the ruler and governs the state on the basis of the highest ethical principles.

In the spring of 499 BC. e. Negotiations took place at the highest state level between the monarchs of the states of Lu and Qi. The kingdom of Qi was a powerful power, but Confucius, being a senior dignitary in the retinue of his monarch and a co-organizer of the meeting, managed to arrange things in such a way that at the end of the negotiations, the stronger kingdom - Qi - ceded several disputed territories to Lu. It is unlikely that such a result was achieved solely by the efforts of the chief adviser, but it would also be wrong to deny his merits.

Inspired by the successes, Confucius seeks to strengthen the power of the sovereign, for which he undertakes an operation to weaken the vassal city-states, demanding that their fortress walls be destroyed and their weapons surrendered. It cannot be said that the attempt was completely successful, but this project undoubtedly contributed to the strengthening of the monarch’s power.

An episode disputed by the followers of Confucius, but confirmed by some evidence, in particular the text, dates back to this period of the teacher’s activity Kunzi Chia Yu(“Family Speeches of Confucius”, or “Speeches of Confucius for School”) is a literary monument of the 3rd century attributed to the Confucian scholar Wang Su. Struggling to strengthen the power of the monarch, Confucius faced political opposition in the form of representatives of the noble nobility. One such person was Shaozheng Mao. Confucius sentenced him to death only because he “had evil and vile intentions.”

Confucius's government career as chief adviser lasted only four years (from 501 to 497 BC) and ended abruptly. The ruler of the Principality of Qi was involved in the removal of the teacher from public office. Historian Sima Qian describes this event in almost epic tones. However, most experts consider this story to be true.

“Then eighty were taken from Qi beautiful girls, dressed in colorful clothes, taught to dance “kanle” and, seated in thirty carts drawn by four horses, covered with embroidered blankets, sent as a gift to the ruler Lu.” The ruler, carried away by the new fun, completely abandoned state affairs. After accepting the gift, “for three days [in Lu] they did not listen [to advice] about governance, and after the sacrifice to Heaven and Earth, the sacrificial meat was not distributed to the daf [high-ranking government official in Ancient China. – Note. prot. OK.]. And then Kung Tzu left the capital of Lu."

In other words, during the ritual distribution of sacrificial meat to the ceremony participants, Confucius was ignored. This was a gross violation of the ritual, an insult to the dignitary and an indication of the inappropriateness of his tenure in his position. Probably, the figure of a wise adviser with high moral authority did not correspond with the morals of the royal court - this was well understood not only by the sovereign and his retinue, but also by the philosopher himself.

Last years of life: travelling, teaching, writing

From this moment on, 55-year-old Confucius begins his long journey around the Celestial Empire, hoping that his wisdom will be in demand by one of the rulers. For 14 years he has been moving from city to city, accompanied by students, without having a permanent home anywhere.

Wanderings, full of sorrows, humiliations and dangers to life, ended with a return to his native kingdom of Lu. By that time, one of the most capable followers of the thinker had occupied a high government position there and managed to win the heart of the ruler towards his teacher. A year earlier, Confucius’s wife, whom he was deeply worried about, also died.

IN home country Confucius does not receive a position, but organizes a private school, into which he accepts people, regardless of their origin, for a very modest fee. According to Sima Qian, “Confucius taught Songs, Traditions, rituals and music. He had about three thousand students, seventy-two of them fully comprehended all six arts, and those who<...>learned the teaching, there were a lot."

Along with teaching, Confucius is engaged in archaeographic research and editing ancient texts. In particular, he works hard on the following texts:

– “I Ching” (“Canon of Changes”, or “Book of Changes”); – “Shu Jing” (“Book of History”, or “Book of Documents”); – “Shi Jing” (“Book of Songs”); – “Li Ji” (“Notes on Ritual”, or “Book of Decency”); – “Yue ji” (“Notes on Music”, or “Book of Music”). The listed texts became fundamental, key for the entire Chinese culture, had a decisive influence on the formation of worldview and national character inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom, and indirectly on the culture of other peoples of the Far East.

At the same time, the thinker also undertakes writing works. He writes “Chun Qiu” (“Spring and Autumn”), a chronicle of his native kingdom of Lu from 722 to 479 BC. e.

In 479 BC. e. Confucius dies at the age of 73.

The funeral took place on the banks of the Syshui River, and the whole city took part in it. In accordance with the ritual and according to ancient tradition, the disciples built huts next to the grave of their mentor and lived in them, strictly performing all mourning rituals for three years.

Spiritual heritage and memories of contemporaries

Subsequently, the disciples of Confucius, based on the memories of his words and deeds, created the famous "Lun Yu"(“Conversations and Judgments”). This text is the main source of knowledge about the life and work of the philosopher.

It should be said that Confucius himself was not an idle talker. According to the information that has reached us, he fully corresponded to the ideal of a noble man who preached.

Confucius is often called a reformer, this is both true and false. True in the sense that he did revise many of the traditional ideas of his time; it is incorrect in the sense that Confucius never set himself the goal of reforming anything, much less inventing a new teaching. On the contrary, all his aspirations were aimed at preserving traditional ideas and reviving state life in the spirit of antiquity.

To complete the description of the figure of Confucius, we will quote the students who left memories of the teacher contained in the tenth chapter of Lun Yu, which bears the characteristic title “In His Village”:

“In his village, Confucius seemed simple-minded and artless in speech, but at court and in the temple of his ancestors he spoke eloquently, although little.”

“Waiting for an audience, talking with lower ranks, he seemed affectionate, while talking with higher ranks, he seemed firm.” “He did not sit on a mat laid crookedly.” “When I was at a feast in my village, I left only after the old people.”

“When his stable burned down, the Teacher, returning from the prince, asked: “No one was hurt?” I didn’t ask about the horses.” “If the prince ordered him to appear, he went without waiting for the horses to be harnessed for him.”

“When his friend died, whom there was no one to bury, he said: “I will bury” .

Key texts of the Confucian tradition

As mentioned earlier, Confucius was engaged in archaeographic research, as well as the editing of ancient texts. He sought to streamline them and bring them to a single version.

As a result, the so-called Confucian canon, denoted by the term Liu Yi. This term, as mentioned above, was known before the birth of the philosopher and literally meant “six canons”, or “six arts”. It meant practical skills that every aristocrat should have. However, in later eras, the term denotes an already defined set of texts associated with the personality of the founder of Confucianism.

– I Ching– “The Canon of Changes” is a book used in fortune telling. It contains 64 hexogram symbols, each of which corresponds to a chapter with an interpretation. In turn, each hexogram consists of six elements - lines - whole or broken. The totality of all possible combinations of these elements gives the number 64. Each article describes a certain type life situation and prospects for its development. Probably, in this case we are dealing with an attempt to describe the entire diversity of phenomena in the Universe using binary code;

– Shi jing- “Book of Songs.” This included: a) folk songs; b) odes and hymns used at the court of the emperor; c) ritual chants. Followers of Confucius believed that he removed songs associated with love feelings from here;

– Shu jing– “Book of Documents” / “Book of History”. The book contains mythological information about the beginning of Chinese history, describes the era of the legendary emperors of antiquity, thereby setting the paradigm of socio-political relations;

– Li ji- “Records of the Ritual.” Description of ancient institutions, orders and rituals;

– Yue Jing- “The Book of Music.” This book, unfortunately, has not survived, and therefore subsequently the Confucian canon included not six, but five canons, the so-called "Pentateuch"(Wu Jing);

– Chun qiu– “Spring and Autumn” is a chronicle of Confucius’s native principality of Lu (from 722 to 479 BC), compiled, according to legend, by the teacher himself.

During the Sun era (X-XIII centuries AD) entered the canon also called "The Four Books"(Sy shu), which included:

– Lun Yu– “Conversations and Judgments” – a recording of Confucius’s conversations with his students. It also contains information about the life of the philosopher himself;

– Zhong Yun– “The Doctrine of Meaning and Constancy” is a treatise of an ethical nature. The book emerged as an independent text from the “Records of Ritual” (Li Ji). The author is considered to be Zi Si, the grandson of Confucius;

– Da xue– “The Great Teaching” is a text also extracted from the “Li Ji”. It is an ethical and political manifesto of Confucianism. Authorship cannot be determined with certainty; according to tradition, the book was attributed to Confucius's student Zeng Zi;

– Mengzi- a book named after the outstanding Confucian philosopher Mengzi (372–289 BC). The treatise substantiates the idea of ​​primordial kindness human nature (xing shan). It is proposed to consider following Confucian practice as a way to reveal this kindness.

Teachings of Confucius

Confucian metaphysics

Confucius's ideas about the spiritual world are mainly a reflection of those religious ideas that dominated China in his time. In relation to religion, as in all other fundamental issues, the sage adhered to his universal formula: “I transmit, but do not create, I believe in antiquity and love it.”

It is significant that the entirety of the teaching was presented by Confucius to his students as Wen(“tradition”, “culture”), that is, a set of basic norms that set the matrix of existence of both an individual person and the entire society.

This approach fully explains why “the teacher did not talk about miracles, power, disorder and spirits.”

At the same time, Confucius respected rituals whose purpose was to influence spiritual beings. “When the demons of the plague were being exorcised in his village, he stood on the eastern stairs in ceremonial attire.”

During the illness that visited him, the sage testified about himself: “I have been turning to the spirits in prayer for a long time.”

However, Confucius preferred to remain cautious when asked about spiritual or mysterious subjects.

At the same time, Confucius pointed out the need to honor Sky(Tian) through sacrifices and insisted on knowing it will(min), which should be decisive in the life of everyone worthy person – noble husband(jun zi).

Epistemological foundations of Confucian ethics

Term "min", well known in antiquity, is further developed in the works of Confucius. Most often it is translated as "fate", "Mandate of Heaven" or "Will of Heaven".

According to Confucius, man is not able to change the will of Heaven. However, he must know what Heaven wants from him. Moreover, this knowledge was correlated not with the personality of a particular person, but with his socio-political status. Simply put, Heaven desires that every member of society and every citizen of the state act in accordance with the duties assigned to him.

It is obvious that acting in accordance with the requirements of one’s duty is not always easy; moreover, such actions do not always bring obvious benefits to a person.

Confucius is fully aware of this and insists that ideally one should act “as one should,” “as is right,” without worrying about the consequences.

Knowledge" Tian Ming“(literally “the will of Heaven”) is necessary for every person striving for perfection. Confucius argued: “Without knowing the will [of heaven], one cannot become a noble man.”

Knowledge of Min gives the one who possesses it the most important advantage - freedom from hesitation and constant doubts that so often torment a person. After all, knowing Ming, a person acts without fear of losing. His action is now judged not by its final, practical, utilitarian results, but by its compliance with his personal duty.

As a result, a person is freed from both the thirst for victory and the paralyzing fear of defeat. He is in inner peace, fully aware that he is acting as he should. Considering the above, one can understand why Confucius said: “A noble man is always happy, a low man is always dejected.”

As a result of this approach, Confucianism was formulated concept of "action without purpose". In order to illustrate this position of the teaching, let us turn once again to the biography of Confucius himself.

There is a remarkable episode in Lun Yu in which one of the teacher's opponents (probably a supporter of the Taoist tradition) ridicules the philosopher, calling him one “who continues to do what he knows he cannot succeed in.” The very fact that the followers of Confucius recorded and preserved this episode suggests that the main thing in the actions of the sage is not success, but the correctness of the actions performed.

That is why, in another place, one of the philosopher’s closest students, objecting to his opponent, says: “For a noble man, service is fulfilling one’s duty, even when it is already known that the path cannot be carried out.”

The whole life of Confucius was the implementation of this principle. He traveled for many years, preaching his teachings in an era of state fragmentation and political chaos, without caring whether his voice would be heard. He said about his ministry: “If my teaching is put into practice, then it is the will of [heaven], if my teaching is rejected, then it is the will of [heaven].”

“Noble Husband” as the executor of the Will of Heaven

So, knowledge and following the Will of Heaven for Confucius are distinctive features the one he calls " noble husband" (Jun Zi– lit. "Son of the Ruler") Understanding this term is very important for the perception of the entire Confucian teaching.

Jun Zi is the exemplary personality that Confucius offered as a moral guide to his followers. He tried to realize this ideal in his life, although he did not directly call himself that.

The doctrine of a noble man is based on the idea of ​​an inextricable connection, the correlation of personal moral self-improvement and social/state activity. The main goal the activity of such a person is the creation ideal state from the time of the ancient emperors Yao and Shun. Confucius insists that only a highly moral, perfect person can engage in government activities.

The opposite Jun Zi is a “low man” - xiao ren(lit. " small man"). “A low person” is a collective negative example, an example of what should not be done, what should be avoided. Xiao Ren- the complete opposite of the noble husband, his moral antipode. This is a person who does not want to fulfill the will of Heaven, who seeks his own petty gain in everything, and is unable to maintain dignity in difficult situations.

It is interesting that due to the influence of Confucian morality on the national consciousness, merchants in China stood on the hierarchical ladder below the peasants.

The main virtues of a “noble husband”

The followers of Confucius, trying to systematize the teachings of the founder of the tradition, formulated the principle "five constants"(Wu chan) a noble person.

By constancy are meant the virtues: – Ren(“humanity”), – AND("justice"), - Lee("ritual"),

– Zhi(“reasonableness”), – Xin("sincerity"). Let us consider in more detail the content of each virtue.

The main virtue of a noble person is Ren. This concept is most often translated as "humanity" or "philanthropy", sometimes descriptively - "love for people".

Confucius himself explained quite simply what Ren:

“Fang Chi asked about philanthropy [i.e. e. about “Ren”. – Note prot. OK.]. The teacher replied: “This means loving others.”

Confucius believed that humanity is inherent in human nature. It is easily discovered by anyone who wants to act with love for people. He testified: “Is philanthropy far from us? If I want to be philanthropic, philanthropy comes." to people should be the core of motivation for the actions of a noble husband.

The fundamental importance of humanity in Confucius can be seen from the fact that “the term “man filled with Ren” becomes synonymous with the term “virtuous person.”

Only humanity can become the basis for the creation of a spiritually strong, morally healthy society, be it an entire nation or one family. Confucius taught: “Do not do to other people what you do not wish for yourself, and then both in the state and in the family they will not feel hostility towards you.”

In “Da Xue” we read: “Do not use what you hate in the higher ones to use the lower ones. Do not use what you hate in the lower ones in the service of the higher ones. Don't use what you hate about those in front to get ahead of those behind. Don't use what you hate about those behind to follow those in front. Don't use what you hate on the right to show off on the left. Don't use what you hate on the left to show off on the right. This is called the principle of application of the measure."

Social forms philanthropy are zhong(“devotion to others,” primarily to elders) and shu(“generosity” towards people, that is, caring for them). In this regard, the following passage from Lun Yu is very indicative:

“The teacher said: “My teaching is permeated with one idea. Tseng Tzu exclaimed: “That’s true!” When the teacher left, the students asked: “What does this mean?” Zeng Tzu replied: “The main principles of the teacher are devotion [to the sovereign] and care [for people], nothing more.”

Only those who love others are able to fulfill their duty in society, to be fair and to do what is right.

We come to the second most important Confucian virtue - AND. AND most often translated as "justice", although, judging by the use of the term in the texts of the Confucian tradition, it should rather be translated as “correctness”, “social obligation”, “following one’s calling”, “readiness to fulfill one’s duty”.

Simply put, AND- this is a categorical imperative that orders a person to do in society what he should, regardless of whether this action will be successful and beneficial for the person. If he acts for profit, then this action is inherently unfair, although outwardly it may look like it.

It is natural that the very concept of benefit whether wears sharply in Confucianism negative character and is opposed in the ethical sense to justice ( AND). Confucius says: “A noble man knows only duty, a low man knows only benefit.”

Lee– a term denoting a ritual. However, this is a ritual not just in the sense of ceremony, but also a certain normativity of all aspects of human life and society, etiquette in the European sense of the word, but based not so much on the rules of decency and established formal customs, but on the religious perception of ritual as the only the right way organization of life in all its manifestations. The ritual, thus, reflects the above categories, that is, it teaches a person justice, adherence to duty and reveals the humanity of his inner nature.

Zhi(“reasonableness” or “wisdom”) is a category valued not only in Confucianism. In this case, it is obvious that wisdom meant, among other things, awareness of the correctness of the teachings of Confucius and a willingness to follow it.

Xin(“sincerity”, “sincerity”) is a virtue that serves as a correlate to ritualism, designed to help saturate ritual and public service with living content, true emotionality and helping a person to internally establish himself in his work for the benefit of others. The performance of rituals, as well as the fulfillment of one’s duty, will only be correct if it is based on a relaxed and unhypocritical desire to act in accordance with the principles of humanity and justice.

Ethics of socio-political relations in Confucianism

Confucius considered any community, be it the court of a ruler, a separate principality or the entire Celestial Empire, as a structure that is an analogue of a family. It is the family that, in his opinion, sets the paradigm for relations between all members of any community.

Later in Confucianism a concept was formulated called Wu harrier– five options (types) of human relationships:

- between father and son (qin); - between ruler and subject (And ); - between husband and wife (be); - between people of different ages (xu); – between friends and companions (blue). The five constants correlated with "Three pillars"(San gan).

They were understood as three forms of command (subordination): – sovereign and subject (ruler (commander) and subordinate); – father and son (older in age (by position) and younger); - husband and wife. All of the above types of relationships are based on the principle xiao– "filial piety". Because the family relationships projected onto all spheres of human life, it was assumed that without xiao Neither family nor social-state life can be correct.

The concept of public and state reform

It was obvious to Confucius that the real state of affairs was far from the ideals he preached. The question inevitably had to arise: how can the current situation be corrected? This question, which is of a theoretical nature, is asked in Lun Yu by one of Confucius’s students:

“Tzu-lu asked: “The Wei ruler intends to involve you in governing the state. What will you do first?”

The teacher replied: “We need to start by correcting the names.”

Tzu-lu asked: “You start from afar. Why do we need to correct the names?”

The teacher said: “How uneducated you are, Yu! A noble husband is wary of what he does not know. If the names are wrong, then the words have no basis. If words have no basis, then deeds cannot be carried out. If business cannot be carried out, then ritual and music will not flourish. If ritual and music do not flourish, punishments are not properly administered. If punishments are not applied properly, people do not know how to behave. Therefore, a noble man, when giving names, must pronounce them correctly, and what he pronounces must be carried out correctly. There should be nothing wrong in the words of a noble man."

Name correction idea (Zheng Ming)- this is a requirement for correspondence between the external position and the internal content of the individual. In other words, a person’s formal status must correspond to his behavior, words and actions.

It is assumed that each name is a reflection of the nature of the thing and therefore there must be real agreement between them. Otherwise, things and people cease to live up to their name, which threatens chaos for any community.

The correspondence of a person to his social status (and in the categories of Confucius - “name”) meant in metaphysical terms following one's Tao.

If a person does not follow his Tao, his name should be changed. He must be deprived of his existing status and given another one corresponding to his state of mind and actions.

In relation to the position of the sovereign, this meant the possibility of his losing the Mandate of Heaven and, as an inevitable consequence, - ge min- coup d'etat.

With certain reservations, a similar approach is applicable to each member of society. That is why Confucius says: “A sovereign must be a sovereign, a dignitary must be a dignitary, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.”

Every name (sovereign, dignitary, father, son) implies certain responsibilities. Therefore, bearers of names indicating a person’s position in society or family must fulfill their duty to which this name indicates.

Confucian ritual practice

In accordance with traditional Chinese ideas, the earthly world has no significant differences from the heavenly world and is its reflection. This became both the reason for the sacralization of the power of the sovereign and the reason for the convergence of the administrative duties of the bureaucracy with the priestly functions.

At the state level, there was even a special department that monitored the correctness and timeliness of performed rituals - Ceremony Department, one of the six higher authorities governance in the empire.

It is also significant that there was even a practice of granting honorary titles to deities.

The ritual was an act of projecting heavenly reality onto the lower world and at the same time bringing people's lives into conformity with the heavenly, divine order. The absence of ritual meant a break with Heaven and, in general, with the sacredness of existence and, as a consequence, anarchy and complete degradation of any human community.

The main goal of the main state rituals is to ensure the well-being and prosperity of society, which is unthinkable without the correct internal structure of its members. Accordingly, the ritual, while establishing a connection with the deity, simultaneously performed a normalizing and harmonizing role in relation to each of its participants. Ritual actions edified a person and pointed him to his place in society, thereby calling him to follow his Tao.

It is no coincidence that this is why in Confucian China an official who showed negligence in the performance of his ritual duties was subject to severe punishment.

The key element of the rituals was sacrifice. Formally, they can be divided into several categories:

1 . Great Sacrifice (yes sy) carried out by the emperor himself. The objects of the cult were Heaven, Earth, the ancestors of the emperor and the spirits of cereals (she ji).

2 . Average sacrifices (jungs) were also the domain of the emperor, and worship was performed to the Sun, the Moon, Jupiter (by whose position calendar dates were calculated), the spirits of heaven and earth, the late emperors of previous dynasties, the divine patron of agriculture, Sheng Nong, as well as Lei Zu, the patroness of sericulture. The empress made sacrifices to the last deity. In addition, following the model of the capital in major cities Similar services were also held.

3 . Small sacrifices (xiaosi) were carried out locally by officials and did not involve the participation of the emperor.

4 . Sacrifices in connection with disasters(flood, epidemic, famine, etc.).

A separate type of ritual were sacrifices in honor of Confucius himself. His cult was among those worshiped by the emperor. There were also sacred places associated with the life and work of the teacher. Throughout the state, he was revered as the patron of science and teaching.

In addition, there were local cults with sacrifices at the graves of revered people who left a legacy good memory. It is noteworthy that, according to ancient Chinese tradition, the ritual of mourning a son for a deceased parent involved strict asceticism for three years, as well as living in a special hut installed near the grave of the deceased.

Traditional rites consisted of two stages: the demonstration of sacrificial gifts to the object of worship and the very act of transferring them through burning on a special altar.

Food or household items were used as sacrificial objects, and burning meant transferring them to another level of existence. All rituals, as a rule, were accompanied by music, for which purpose special instruments were often kept in temples, used by special orchestras if necessary.

A separate topic related to state rituals are rituals Ke Ju, committed as part of the examinations for administrative positions, as well as accompanying the entry into office of an official, as well as his resignation.

Confucianism in Chinese history

In 478 BC. e., that is, already two years after the death of Confucius, a temple was built in his honor in his homeland in Qufu. Later, temples appeared in other cities (Beijing, Shanghai).

Almost immediately after the death of the teacher, his followers divided into several directions. The most significant followers and interpreters of the teachings of Confucius were Mengzi(372–289 BC) and Xun Zi(c. 313–238 BC) - authors of two treatises of the same name.

Already in the era of its formation, Confucianism had to withstand a severe competitive struggle for influence on the state and society with alternative teachings: Taoism, Mohism and Legalism. This is the period of the so-called "early Confucianism".

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (246–210 BC) proclaimed legalism as the official ideology. A real war was declared on Confucianism: followers of Confucius were deprived of their positions, sacred texts were destroyed (the now known treatises were restored from memory in the 2nd century BC). The most dramatic episode of the confrontation was the execution of 460 Confucian scholars who were buried alive.

During the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), which replaced the Zhou Dynasty, nationwide veneration of Confucius began. The emperors themselves worship him, sacrifices are made in his honor, and his name is invoked in prayers in schools. He is considered a deity who foresaw the existence of the reigning house and in his work “Spring and Autumn” encrypted the political ideal put into practice by the ruling dynasty (Han).

Attempts are being made to creatively comprehend ancient ideas in the context of new political realities. As a result, Confucianism becomes a full-fledged worldview system and receives the status of a state doctrine. In modern Sinology this type of teaching is called "classical Confucianism".

In the 1st century AD e. under the patronage of the emperor, a huge amount of work is being done to unify the canon, the official cult of Confucius is being formed, and an examination system is being created Ke Ju, which made it possible to consolidate the sacred status of Confucian texts and create a system of social elevators that operated for two millennia.

The exams required, among other things, demonstration of knowledge (in fact, by heart) of canonical treatises and mastery of the “Six Arts” (see above), in particular, the ability to shoot accurately from a bow and write poetry. The exams had a three-stage structure, starting in the provinces and ending in the capital. The one who passed all the tests occupied the desired administrative position. Formally, this was the case until the beginning of the 20th century.

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Confucianism encountered another competing doctrine: Buddhism. As a result of attempts to give an adequate response to the challenges posed by the new religion, largely thanks to the works of the scientist Han Yu (768–824), the "Neo-Confucianism".

In the 19th century, the doctrine experienced another crisis due to a clash with Western culture. During this period, new interpretations of Confucianism appeared, including those aimed at synthesis with ideas born in the depths of European civilization.

In the 20th century, a communist regime was established in mainland China. The communists respected the personality of Confucius, realizing that the ideas of the teacher, which permeated the life of the common people, including the peasantry, could not be ignored in the ways of governing the new state.

The situation changed during the era of reforms Mao Zedong. Conducted by him "cultural revolution"(1966–1976) appealed to the idea of ​​progress. Confucianism was declared an obstacle to a bright future.

Nevertheless, the teachings of Confucius overcame this difficult period, and in the 1970–1980s, during the era of socio-political reforms Deng Xiaoping, Confucianism has again become a prominent spiritual force, significantly influencing the public consciousness of modern China.

Literature

Vasiliev P. S. Cults, religions, traditions in China. M., 1970.

Glagolev S. S. Religions of China. M., 1901. Ancient Chinese philosophy. Collected texts in 2 volumes. T. 1. M.: Mysl, 1972.

Confucius. Lun Yu. Sayings / Confucius. M.: AST-Astrel, 2011.

Malyavin V.V. Chinese civilization. M.: Design. Information. Cartography; Astrel; AST, 2001.

Malyavin V.V. Confucius. M., 1992.

Perelomov L. S. Confucius: life, teaching, fate. M.: Nauka, 1993.

Perelomov L. S. Confucius and Confucianism from antiquity to the present (V century BC – XXI century). M.: Steelservice, 2009.

Feng-Yu-Lan. A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy. St. Petersburg, 1998.

The small town of Qufu, by Chinese standards (its population is only about 700 thousand people), located in the north of Shandong province, would have remained unknown to anyone if not for one of its famous residents - Confucius. There are three architectural and park complexes associated with this name. Temple of worship of Confucius - Kunmiao (Temple of Confucius), the family estate of Confucius and his descendants - Kungfu (Kun Manor) and the cemetery of the Kun family - Kunlin ("Forest of the Kuns"). Every year, millions of pilgrims and tourists come to Quhu to see the places of life and service of the great man and philosopher, to honor him and worship his grave.

It is not surprising that for participants of the information tour organized by the China Travel Company (Moscow) with the direct participation of the General Administration of Tourism of Shandong Province, a visit to Qufu was mandatory.

There are probably few people who have not heard of Confucius. This ancient Chinese philosopher and thinker, through the philosophical system he founded, now known as Confucianism, had a huge influence on life in China and throughout Southeast Asia, and determined its course for centuries to come. Not being a religion, Confucianism achieved the status of a state ideology. This status is still preserved to one degree or another, along with Buddhism and Taoism.

Qufu is the city where Kong Qiu's mother was born (real name of Confucius). Here, after the death of his father, the future philosopher spent his youth, and here the last years of his life, teaching people and systematizing his works.

Temple of Confucius Worship

A small temple complex of three wooden buildings, dedicated to Confucius, was founded in Qufu by his followers two years after the death of the teacher in 478 BC. The complex was located approximately in the place where Confucius taught.

Subsequently, over the course of two and a half thousand years, the complex was rebuilt several times and has now reached enormous proportions.

This happened mainly because each of the eleven emperors of China visiting the complex wanted to leave a memory of themselves in the form of temples, triumphal entrance gate and other buildings. Along with the increase in the number of buildings, the area of ​​the complex also increased.

Today it occupies more than 20 hectares, has 9 courtyards connected by numerous gates and pavilions, has 466 separate rooms, and 54 memorial arches.

The temple ensemble acquired its final appearance in the 14th century. XVII centuries. Subsequently, it was seriously damaged by fire, but was restored in 1725.

Family estate of Confucius

The descendants of Confucius lived next to the temple complex dedicated to him, almost from the moment of its foundation. But only in 1055, after the 46th generation descendant of Confucius was awarded the title “Yansheng-gun” - “continuer of the family from generation to generation”, their family estate turned into a truly palace ensemble. The descendants of the eldest grandson in the direct line of the heirs of Confucius lived here.

In 1935, the last of the holders of the title “Yansheng-gun”, a descendant of Confucius in the 77th generation, left her. By that time, the estate occupied an area of ​​160 thousand square meters and consisted of 480 buildings. It still arrives in this form now.

All buildings of the estate are built in a style characteristic of traditional Chinese architecture. Its structure reflects the life of feudal society of that time. The estate is a fortress with a defensive wall, a labyrinth of courtyards, passages and galleries. As was customary at that time, the entire estate is divided into male and female halves.

In addition to residential premises, the estate includes big garden with various fruit and ornamental trees.

In the entire history of China there was not a single clan that for 1000 years consistently enjoyed such high social status, like the family of Confucius.

Kun Family Cemetery and Tomb of Confucius

Not far from the Confucius estate there is a family cemetery of the Kun family (descendants of Confucius). The teacher's grave is also located here. True, the ashes of Confucius were transferred here only twenty years after his death.

Also in the cemetery are Confucius’s son, grandson and more than 100 thousand of his descendants. The giant man-made park complex, where the cemetery is located, currently exceeds an area of ​​two square kilometers.

As we said earlier, the cemetery has more than 100 thousand graves. Many of them are decorated with tombstones, statues, and steles with epitaphs.

During the Cultural Revolution in China, the Red Guards (Red Guards) opened the tomb of Confucius. The body was not found in the burial. Whether Confucius's body was hidden, or whether he was never in this grave at all, history is silent.

An interesting fact is that today any Chinese with the surname Kun is a descendant of Confucius. And, as a descendant of Confucius, he has the right to be buried in this cemetery. True, for this, he or his relatives must pay 200 yuan to the treasury, the body of the deceased must be cremated, and no memorial plaque is installed at the burial site of the urn with ashes.

Blue magpies also live in this park cemetery. There are no such birds anywhere else. They say that it is the souls of the descendants of Confucius who protect him.

Vadim Lisetsky - FIJET journalist

Chinese civilization gave the world paper, a compass, gunpowder, and original cultural content. before others understood the importance of teaching among the bureaucracy, before other countries realized the importance of transmitting scientific knowledge, and already in the early Middle Ages stood on the threshold of capitalism. Modern researchers tend to explain such successes by the fact that Chinese spiritual life did not have a strict religious line throughout its history. While church dogmas dictated the laws of God to the Western world, China was developing a unique socio-cultural worldview. The main philosophical teaching that replaced political ideology and religious accompaniment was Confucianism.

The term "Confucianism" is of European origin. Missionaries of the Old World at the end of the 16th century named the dominant socio-political system of China after its founder - Kung Fu-tzu (teacher from the Kun family). In the Chinese tradition, the philosophical movement founded by Confucius is called the “school educated people”, which explains its essence much better.

IN ancient China local officials were appointed, so statesmen who lost their positions often became itinerant teachers, forced to earn money by teaching ancient scriptures. Educated people settled in favorable territories, where famous schools and the first proto-universities were subsequently formed. During the Chunqiu period, there were especially many wandering teachers in the kingdom of Lu, which became the birthplace of Confucius (551–479 BC) and his teachings.

The period of fragmentation in the history of China became the flowering of philosophical movements of various directions. The ideas of the “100 schools” developed without much competition with each other, until the Celestial Empire set the ship of history on the course of strengthening feudalization.

Confucian values

The philosophy of Confucius arose in turbulent times; all social expectations of the inhabitants of the Celestial Lands were directed in a peaceful direction. Confucian philosophy is based on the cults of the primitive period - the cult of ancestors and the veneration of the ancestor of the entire Chinese people, the legendary Shandi. The prehistoric semi-mythical ruler, bestowed by Heaven, was associated with a supreme semi-divine power. This is where the tradition of calling China “The Celestial Empire” and the ruler the “Son of Heaven” originates. Let us at least remember the famous “” in Beijing - one of the symbols of the capital of the People's Republic of China.

Initially, the teaching proceeded from the fact that the desire to live and develop is a principle underlying human essence. The main virtue, according to Confucius, is humanity (ren). This life law should determine relationships in the family and society, manifest itself in respect for elders and younger ones. To comprehend ren, a person must improve himself throughout his life, using the power of his mind to rid himself of base manifestations of character.

The meaning of human existence is to achieve the highest degree of social justice, which can be achieved by developing in oneself positive traits, following the path of self-development (Tao). The embodiment of Tao in a particular person can be judged by his virtues. A person who has reached the heights of Tao becomes an ideal of morality - a “noble husband.” He has access to harmony with himself and nature, the world and the cosmos.

Confucius believed that for each family separately and for a single state as a whole, the rules are the same - “the state is a large family, and the family is a small state.” The thinker believed that the state was created to protect every person, therefore the people's happiness depends on the prestige of monarchical power. Following ancient traditions helps to bring harmony to the social structure, even in the face of material and natural difficulties. “Man can expand the Tao, but not the Tao of man.”

Belief in the afterlife was more a tribute to filial respect for older relatives than a religious cult. Confucius believed that strict observance of rituals and customs helps society to be more resistant to social upheavals, helps to understand historical experience and preserve the wisdom of ancestors. Hence the doctrine of the correction of names, which states that “a sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” A person’s behavior determines his position and marital status.

The great thinker Confucius, relying on semi-mythical antiquity and unstable modernity, created a philosophical system for his country that directed the people's will along the path of development and prosperity. His worldview found a response in the faces of his contemporaries and in the souls of subsequent generations. Confucianism was not a strict set of rules, but turned out to be flexible, capable of surviving millennia, absorbing new knowledge, and transforming for the benefit of all inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom.

After the death of the wisest teacher from the Kun family, his teaching was continued to be developed by his students and followers. Already in the 3rd century BC. e. There were about 10 different Confucian schools.

The Historical Path of Confucianism

The traditions of the “school of educated people” were laid down in the heyday of ancient Chinese philosophy in an era of fragmentation. The unification of the state under the imperial hand required strict territorial and cultural centralization. The first ruler of a united China, the Great Qin Shi Huang (creator), to strengthen his power, built not only on the border, but also in the minds of his subjects. Legalism was given priority as the main ideology. And the bearers of Confucian philosophy, according to legend, were brutally persecuted.

But the next Han dynasty relied on Confucianism. Numerous followers of ancient wisdom were able to restore lost texts from oral sources. Different interpretations of Confucius's speeches created a number of related teachings based on ancient traditions. From the second century, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Celestial Empire; from that time on, to be Chinese meant to be a Confucian by birth and upbringing. Every official is required to pass an exam on knowledge of traditional Confucian values. Such an examination was carried out for more than a thousand years, during which a whole ritual developed that lasted until the 20th century. The best candidates confirmed their knowledge of the legendary by passing the main exam in the presence of the emperor.

The doctrine of man's striving for virtue did not create obstacles to the parallel development of various religious and philosophical systems. Starting from the 4th century, it began to penetrate Chinese society. Interaction with new realities, the cultural assimilation of the Indian religion, the addition of the worldview system of Taoist schools, led to the birth of a new philosophical direction - neo-Confucianism.

From the middle of the 6th century, a tendency began to develop towards strengthening the cult of Confucius and the deification of the power of the emperor. A decree was issued on the construction of a temple in honor of the ancient thinker in every city, which created a number of interesting ones. At this stage, the religious overtones in treatises based on the work of Confucius begin to intensify.

The modern version of post-Neo-Confucianism is the collective work of many authors.

Qingchengshan Mountains(Sichuan Province, i.e. “four streams”) are among the five most picturesque mountain ranges in China. Their name translates as “Green Fortress”. The mountains consist of 36 majestic peaks, the slopes of which are covered with dense evergreen forest and bamboo thickets. Here, against the backdrop of amazing landscapes, in the VI-V centuries. BC. One of the Chinese traditional religions, Taoism, was born. The list of UNESCO sites also includes the ancient Dujiangyan irrigation system, created in the 3rd century. BC. near the river, which is the left tributary of the Yangtze - the largest river in the country. This irrigation system, which served as a model for the creation of irrigation systems in other areas of China, is still in operation today.

Mount Taishan(“Great Mountain”) is one of the five sacred mountains of China, which the Chinese associate with sunrise. It is located in Shandong Province ("east of the mountain"), about 400 km south of Beijing. At the foot of the mountain is the city of Qufu, the birthplace of the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (VI-V centuries BC). The highest peak of the sacred mountain is the Jade Emperor Peak (1545 m). The Mount Tai Deity Temple at the top of Taishan has become a place of pilgrimage for emperors since the Qin Dynasty (3rd century BC). From the foot of the mountain to its top, Chinese rulers climbed a stone staircase consisting of more than 7,000 steps. The length of this path is about 10 km. There are 22 temples, about a hundred ruins, 800 stone slabs and more than 1000 rock paintings and inscriptions preserved on the mountain. Here is also the largest temple complex in China - Daimiao (III century BC).

(Shandong Province) were erected in the 5th century. BC. by decree of the ruler of the kingdom of Lu. Nowadays, the complex of buildings known as the Temple of Confucius includes more than a hundred buildings. The temple is surrounded by a red brick wall, framed by memorial arches and decorated with corner towers. Sacred Confucian texts are walled up in the famous Lubi Wall. In the main hall there is a statue of Confucius seated, holding a writing board. The philosopher’s burial place is Confucius Grove, where the graves of more than 100 thousand of his descendants are located. Small house The Kun family turned over time into an aristocratic residence, including over 150 buildings, forming a huge palace complex.

Located in southeast China, on the border of the provinces of Fujian (“the region of the rivers”) and Jiangxi (“west of the river”). A mountain range consisting of 36 peaks, almost all year round shrouded in fog. Despite the fact that the Wuyi Mountains are not ranked among the five sacred mountains of China, they are rightfully recognized as one of the most picturesque Chinese mountain systems. The secluded beauty of these places has attracted Buddhist monks and Taoist pilgrims for centuries. The founder of Neo-Confucianism, Zhu Xi, lived in these places and opened two schools here. In the mountains there are many ancient temples and monasteries, as well as the ruins of the Princely City of the Han Dynasty (1st century). On the steep cliffs near the Jiuquxi River you can see “hanging coffins”, the oldest of which is about four thousand years old. This is the oldest rock coffin in the world. It is believed that the custom of storing ancestors in hanging coffins developed among the local population back in the Neolithic era.

Located in southeast China, in Jiangxi province. The Lushan Mountains are one of the spiritual centers of Chinese civilization. The picturesque landscapes of these places have attracted monks, thinkers, poets and artists here for many centuries. The founders of Taoism and Buddhism created their first schools here. About 400 ancient buildings have survived to this day. The rich culture of the Lushan Mountains is complemented by their diverse nature.