Types of expressive speech. Expressiveness of speech

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Signaling

Povalyaeva M. A.

P42 Speech therapist's reference book - Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 20D2. - 448 p.

The reference book will introduce you to regulatory documents, information and methodological letters, will help you better understand the causes of speech disorders, competently carry out a comprehensive differential diagnosis, intelligently select and successfully implement the adequate, most effective correctional and developmental methodology, using traditional and non-traditional methods.

Addressed to heads of correctional educational institutions (classes, groups), defectologists, school speech therapists, preschool institutions, students of pedagogical and medical universities, colleges, students of institutes for advanced training and retraining of personnel. May be of interest to doctors: neurologists, psychiatrists, pediatricians, physiotherapists; parents with children with speech disorders.

ISBN 5-222-02815-1

IN THE WORLD OF WISE THOUGHTS

The child is like dough: just as you knead it, it grows.

A child's defects are not born, but nurtured.

The best inheritance is education.

Learning in childhood is as lasting as engraving on stone.

Learning without skill is not a benefit, but a disaster.

Without effort there is no knowledge.

Capricious in childhood, ugly in old age.

A true pointer is not a fist, but a caress.

Prodding is not education.

Education does not sprout in the soul unless it penetrates to a significant depth. Protagoras

What does it mean that (these) several hours of correct speech can give among a whole day of incorrect conversation!

I will constantly monitor myself all the time. - I will turn life into a continuous lesson! In this way I will forget how to speak incorrectly. K. Stanislavsky

By mastering his native language, a child learns not only words... but an infinite variety of concepts, views on objects, a multitude of thoughts, feelings, artistic images, logic and philosophy of language - and he learns easily and quickly, in two or three years, so much that he cannot learn even half of it in 20 years of diligent and methodical study. This is this great folk teacher - his native word.

K. D. Ushinsky

You marvel at the preciousness of our language: every sound is a gift; everything is grainy, large, like the pearl itself, and, truly, another name is even more precious than the thing itself.

N.V. Gogol

Section 1

BRAIN AND SPEECH.

NORM AND PATHOLOGY

If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, it must also study him in all respects.

TO. D. Ushinsky

The study of the neurological foundations of speech therapy is of great general educational importance in the training of speech therapists and other defectologists. Familiarizing a novice teacher with the structure and function of the brain introduces him to the field of scientific natural science. The proposed section may be interesting and useful to practitioners: teachers, doctors. It will help to better understand the structure of speech disorders, their etiology, mechanisms, and pathogenesis.

The use of special medical literature by teachers is often ineffective because it is difficult to understand, because it is intended for doctors. Doctors, for their part, being well versed in neurological symptoms, are not confident enough when they have to deal with speech pathology caused by lesions of both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Particular difficulty is caused by mild, “erased” forms of dysarthria - one of the most common speech disorders in the last decade.

Working directly on the study of the central nervous system, student speech therapists will be able to visually perceive the complexity of the structure of the brain, this highly differentiated matter. Visualization will help to better understand the mechanism of speech in normal and pathological conditions, because most speech anomalies are caused by the results of various lesions of the nervous system.

However, the question of the place of natural science disciplines in the training of specialists, unfortunately, is still being debated. Currently, there are many “pedagogical scholastics” who are trying to build the upbringing and education of a child with speech disorders, ignoring his nature, reserve, compensatory capabilities, mental and somatic characteristics.

The development of pedagogical science in the historical aspect has always occurred in intense struggle. However, progressive teachers both in Russia and abroad have always condemned this direction. Thus, back in the Middle Ages, the great Slavic teacher Jan Amos Comenius, in his work “The Great Didactics,” sharply condemned such scholastic views that interfere with the upbringing of a child.

He emphasized that teachers often turn out to be worse than artisans, because an artisan, when starting to make this or that thing, always becomes thoroughly acquainted with the quality of the material from which he is going to make the product. The teacher often, when starting the educational process, is not even interested in the mental, physiological, and speech capabilities of the child, which causes irreparable harm to the entire educational system.

A close connection with related sciences and integrative connections will help to reveal the nature of the child, correctly qualify the existing defect, and understand its structure, etiology, mechanism, and pathogenesis. Speech disorders caused by damage to the nervous system are difficult to correct and require only the joint efforts of both teachers and doctors. Individually they are powerless. Medicine is not able to cure these defects, and conventional methods of speech education are ineffective. This is where a speech therapist who has a whole arsenal comes to the rescue special methods and techniques, the use of which is based on knowledge of the neurological foundations of speech and the doctrine of the child’s compensatory capabilities.

The essence of compensation is that with an integrated approach to correctional work, the nervous system of children acquires a number of properties that, to one degree or another, compensate for weakened, impaired or lost functions.

It is important to remember that the pedagogical impact must be preceded by a set of medical techniques: medication (pharmacotherapy); kinesitherapy, including massage, exercise therapy, articulation and breathing exercises, physiotherapy and herbal medicine.

NEUROLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPEECH

Only humans were capable of developing articulate speech. It depends on the structural features of the brain. I.P. Pavlov called the brain an organ of adaptation to the environment, since it ensures the body’s connection with the outside world. The more complex the brain, the more perfect and subtle its adaptation mechanisms will be.

A child is born with a very immature brain, the weight of which is 350-400 g; by the age of one year it triples, and by the age of six it is close to the weight of the adult brain. In humans, the weight of the brain is 1/46-1/50 of the body, the frontal lobes occupy 25% of the area of the hemispheres. The surface of the brain increases due to the fact that it folds and forms numerous grooves and convolutions (Fig. 1.1) In the human cerebral cortex there are 17 billion nerve cells, the reproduction of which ends by the birth of the child. If nerve cells die, they are not restored.

Currently, in neurohistology, a six-layer type of structure of the cerebral cortex is accepted (Fig. 1.2). The following layers are distinguished: first-molecular, zonal y - occurs early, very light, poor in cells; second- external granular, granule cells predominate; third- layer of pyramidal cells, fourth- internal granular- small granule cells predominate; fifth- ganglionic, where Betz's large pyramidal cells occur; dough- multiform, formed by triangular and spindle-shaped cells. It is often divided into two sublayers. However, the six-layer type of structure is not maintained throughout the entire cortex. For example, studies by Capers, Economo, and I. N. Filimonov point to the area of the anterior central gyrus, where the granular layer is not represented at all. Approximately 1/12 of the bark does not have a strictly consistent six-layer structure. This is predominantly the old cortex (allocortex). The new cortex (neocortex) is mostly characterized by a six-layer structure.

The functional significance of the individual layers has not yet been fully elucidated. There is reason to believe that the upper layers perform associative (connecting) functions, while the fourth layer (granular) primarily performs receptor functions. The fifth and sixth ones are related to motor acts.

In speech acts, the division of the cortex into layers and the maturation of nerve cells are completed mainly by the age of two years, but the fine structure of the cortex continues to improve for many years.

Microscopic study of the cerebral cortex, begun by Russian professor V.A. Betz in 1869. (Kyiv), Meinert and others, showed that its structure (architectonics) is not the same. The morphological and functional heterogeneity of the cerebral cortex made it possible to identify the centers of vision, hearing, touch, etc., which have a specific localization. There are several options for classifying cortical fields. A number of authors have identified different numbers of fields in the cerebral cortex. Thus, Brodman identified 52 fields, Economo - 109, Koskinas - 119, Vogt - 180 (see cytoarchitectonic map of the human cerebral cortex, outer surface (Moscow Brain Institute) - in Fig. 1.3).

Table 1.1

A “right-hemisphere” person has a sharp impoverishment of vocabulary. Only short, simple phrases are accessible to his understanding. He himself speaks in separate words, but, despite the paucity of his vocabulary, such a person retains the intonation pattern of speech; he easily recognizes musical melodies, non-speech sounds, and perfectly distinguishes the voices and intonations of other people. So, imaginative perception in a “right-hemisphere” person is heightened compared to the norm, while perception and abstract thinking are inhibited and reduced. Consequently, the “specialization” of the hemispheres is not an innate phenomenon, but a developed one. IN left hemispheres of the brain are localized: semantic perception and speech reproduction, writing, self-awareness, fine motor control of the fingers of both hands, logical, abstract, analytical thinking, arithmetic calculation, musical composition, color space, positive emotions.

IN right, cerebral hemispheres brain localized: spatial-visual abilities, intuition, music, prosodic side of speech, rough movements of the whole hand, holistic perception, negative emotions, humor. It does not perceive verbs or abstract terms.

LOBE OF THE BRAIN

Frontal lobe. Its bark is the thickest: from 2.5 to 4.5 mm, the microscopic structure is not the same. A number of cortical fields are distinguished here (fields 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, 47) (see Fig. 1.3, 1.4). Damage to the frontal lobe is accompanied by a disorder of movement in the limbs, a violation of the congenital movements of the eyeballs, loss of the motor form of speech, as well as mental changes: rigidity of thinking, apathy, general lethargy, decreased criticism.

Parietal cortex has, in comparison with the frontal, a smaller thickness: from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. Architectonics of the cortex parietal lobe also varied. It contains a number of cortical fields: 2, 3, 5, 7, 39, 40, etc. (see Fig. 1.3, 1.4). The parietal lobe is characterized by a wealth of nerve pathways connecting it with other areas of the cortex. When the parietal lobe is damaged, cases of sensitivity disorders (field 3), both superficial and deep, disorders of learned movements - apraxia (field 13), in particular, disturbances in the acts of writing (field 5) and reading (field 10) are characteristic (see Fig. 1.3, 1.5).

Temporal lobe. Its bark thickness is about 2.5 mm. It is also distinguished by its unequal microscopic structure. The following cortical fields are distinguished in it: 20, 21, 22, 41, 42, 52, etc. (see Fig. 1.3, 1.4). If the temporal lobe is damaged, hearing disorders may occur, as well as sensory disturbances, consisting of a loss of understanding of the meaning of speech addressed to a person.

Occipital lobe. The cortex of the occipital lobe is very thin: from 1.5 mm to 2.5 mm. The microscopic structure is not the same. The following cortical fields are distinguished: 17, 18, 19 and 37 - occipitotemporal field (see Fig. 1.3, 1.4). Damage to the occipital lobe can be accompanied by various forms of visual impairment, up to complete blindness (see Fig. 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6); disturbances in color perception, changes in visual fields, as well as loss of analysis and synthesis when assessing objects and phenomena of the external world (agnosia). Visual agnosia is a disorder in which the ability to recognize familiar objects is lost.

All parts of the brain are closely interconnected. Association fibers combine different areas of the cortex within one hemisphere.

Commissural fibers connect topographically identical areas of the right and left hemispheres. Commissural fibers form three commissures: the anterior white commissure, the fornix commissure, and the corpus callosum. The bulk of commissural fibers pass through the corpus callosum, which connect symmetrical areas of both hemispheres of the brain.

Projection pathways connect the cerebral hemispheres with its underlying parts: the brainstem and spinal cord. The projection fibers contain conductive paths carrying various information: afferent (sensitive) And efferent (motor)(see Fig. 1.5).

SUBCORTICAL NODES

I.P. Pavlov considered the subcortex as an accumulator of the cortex, as a strong energy base that charges the cortex with nervous energy. The subcortex is the source of energy for all higher nervous activity, and the cortex plays the role of a regulator in relation to it. When the subcortical nodes are damaged, motor acts are disrupted, which is expressed in the appearance of unnecessary violent movements in the muscles - hyperkinesis or the opposite phenomena - motor adynamia, retardation. Disturbances in the rate of speech are possible, sharp changes are observed in the emotional sphere, character. Increased irritability and a tendency to affective outbursts appear. Craving occurs in the form of an insatiable appetite (bulimia) or unquenchable thirst (polydipsia). In other cases, there is a special rigidity of thinking, emotional dullness, and a poverty of motives is revealed.

Cranial nerves

Cranial nerves begin in the brainstem, where their nuclei are located. The exceptions are the olfactory, auditory and optic nerves, the first neuron of which is located outside the brain stem. Most cranial nerves are mixed in nature: they contain both sensory and motor fibers, with sensory fibers predominating in some and motor fibers predominating in others. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Let's look at them (Fig. 1.6, 1.7).

I pair- olfactory nerve. The olfactory pathway begins in the nasal mucosa in the form of thin nerve filaments that pass through the ethmoid bone of the skull, exit to the base of the brain and are collected in the olfactory pathway. Most of the olfactory fibers end in the uncinate gyrus on the inner surface of the cortex, in the central nucleus of the olfactory analyzer.

II pair- optic nerve. The visual pathway begins in the retina, which is made up of cells called rods and cones. These cells are receptors that perceive various light and color stimuli. In addition to these cells, the eye contains ganglion nerve cells, the dendrites of which end in cones and rods, and the axons form the optic nerve. The optic nerves enter through the bony opening into the cranial cavity and run along the bottom of the base of the brain. At the base of the brain, the optic nerves form a half decussation - a chiasm. Not all nerve fibers are crossed, but only the fibers coming from the inner halves of the retina. The fibers coming from the outer halves do not intersect and remain on their side. The massive bundle of nerve tracts that forms after the decussation of the optic fibers is called the optic tract. In the optic tract of each side, nerve fibers pass not from one eye, but from the same halves of the retinas of both eyes. For example, in the left visual tract from both left halves of the retinas, and in the right - from both right halves. Most of the nerve fibers of the optic tract are directed to the external geniculate bodies, a small part of the nerve fibers approach the nuclei of the anterior colliculi, the cushion of the visual thalamus. From the cells of the lateral geniculate body, the visual pathway goes to the cerebral cortex. This section of the path is called the Graziole beam. The visual pathway ends in the occipital lobe cortex, where the central nucleus is located visual analyzer. Visual acuity in children can be checked using a special table. Color perception is also tested with a set of color paintings.

Damage to the visual pathway can occur at any point. Depending on this, a different clinical picture of vision damage will be observed.

III pair- oculomotor nerve.

IV pair- trochlear nerve.

VI pair- abducens nerve.

All three pairs of cranial nerves carry out movements of the eyeball and are oculomotors. These nerves carry impulses to the muscles that move the eyeball.

There is paralysis of the corresponding muscles and restrictions in the movements of the eyeball - strabismus. In addition, when the third pair of cranial nerves is damaged, ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid) and pupil inequality are observed. The latter is also associated with damage to the branch of the sympathetic nerve that takes part in the innervation of the eye (see Fig. 1.4, 1.6, 1.7).

V pair- trigeminal nerve (mixed). It provides motor and sensory innervation, provides sensitivity from the skin of the face, the anterior part of the scalp, the mucous membrane of the nasal and oral cavities, the tongue, the eyeball, and the meninges. Motor fibers of the trigeminal nerve innervate the masticatory muscles. The sensory fibers of the trigeminal nerve, like the spinal nerves, begin in the sensory ganglion lying on the anterior surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone. The peripheral processes of the nerve cells of this node end in receptors in the face, scalp, and so on, and their central processes go to the sensory nuclei of the trigeminal nerve, where the second neurons of the sensory pathways from the face are located. The fibers coming from them form the so-called trigeminal loop, then move to the opposite side and join the medial loop (the common sensory path from the spinal cord to the visual thalamus). The third neuron lies in the optic thalamus. The motor nucleus is located on the pons. At the base of the brain, the trigeminal nerve emerges from the thickness of the pons in the area of the cerebellopontine angle. Three branches of the trigeminal nerve arise from the Hesserian ganglion. The nerves exit the skull onto the facial surface and form three branches: a) orbital, b) zygomatic, c) mandibular.

The first two branches are sensitive. They innervate the skin of the upper facial region, as well as the mucous membranes of the nose, eyelids, eyeball, upper jaw, gums and teeth. Some fibers supply the meninges. The third branch of the trigeminal nerve is mixed in fiber composition. Its sensory fibers innervate the lower part of the skin surface of the face, the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, the mucous membrane of the mouth, teeth and gums. lower jaw. The motor fibers of this branch innervate the masticatory muscles and take part in the taste function. The sympathetic nerve plays a significant role in the innervation of the trigeminal nerve. When the peripheral branches of the trigeminal nerve are damaged, the skin sensitivity of the face is disrupted. Sometimes there are painful

stupas of pain (trigeminal neuralgia) caused by an inflammatory process in the nerve. Disorders of the motor portion of the fibers cause paralysis of the masticatory muscles, as a result of which the movements of the lower jaw are sharply limited, which makes chewing food difficult and disrupts sound pronunciation (Fig. 1.8).

VI pair- abducens nerve (motor), innervates the external rectus muscle of the eye, which moves the eyeball outward. The nerve nucleus is located in the posterior part of the pons at the bottom of the rhomboid fossa. The nerve fibers extend to the base of the brain at the border between the pons and the medulla oblongata. Through the superior orbital fissure, the nerve passes from the cranial cavity to the orbit.

VII pair- facial nerve (motor), innervates facial muscles and muscles of the auricle. The nerve nucleus is located on the border between the pons and the medulla oblongata. The nerve fibers leave the brain in the region of the cerebellopontine angle and, together with the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII pair), enter the internal auditory foramen of the temporal bone, and from there into the canal of the temporal bone. In the canal of the temporal bone, this nerve goes along with the intermediate nerve, which carries sensory fibers of taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and autonomic salivary fibers to the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands (see Fig. 1.8). The facial nerve exits the skull through the stylomastoid foramen, dividing into a number of terminal branches that innervate the facial muscles. With unilateral damage to the facial nerve, which often occurs as a result of a cold, nerve paralysis develops, in which the following picture is observed: a low eyebrow, the palpebral fissure is wider than on the healthy side, the eyelids do not close tightly, the nasolabial fold is smoothed, the corner of the mouth droops, voluntary movements are difficult, it is impossible to frown and raise your eyebrows, puff out your cheeks evenly, whistle with your lips or utter a sound "y" . Patients feel numbness in the affected half of the face and experience pain. Due to the fact that the facial nerve includes secretory and taste fibers, salivation is disrupted and taste is upset.

VIII pair- auditory nerve. The auditory nerve begins in the inner ear with two branches. First branch- auditory nerve - leaves the spiral ganglion located in the cochlea of the labyrinth. The cells of the spiral ganglion are bipolar, that is, they have two processes, one group of processes (peripheral) goes to the hair cells of the organ of Corti, the other forms the auditory nerve. Second branch the mixed auditory nerve is called vestibular nerve: This branch arises from the vestibular apparatus, also located in the inner ear and consisting of three bony tubules and two sacs. A liquid circulates inside the canals - endolymph, in which calcareous pebbles - otoliths - float. The inner surface of the sacs and canals is equipped with sensory nerve endings coming from the Scarp nerve ganglion, which lies at the bottom of the internal auditory canal. The long processes of this node form the vestibular nerve branch. When leaving the inner ear, the auditory and vestibular branches join together and form the so-called auditory nerve - the eighth pair. Having entered the cavity of the medulla oblongata, these nerves approach the nuclei located here, after which they separate again, each following its own direction. From the nuclei of the medulla oblongata, the auditory least goes already under the name of the auditory pathway. Moreover, some of the fibers intersect at the level of the bridge and pass to the other side. The other part goes along its side, including neurons from some nuclear formations (trapezoid body, etc.). This segment of the auditory pathway is called the lateral lemniscus. It ends in the posterior tubercles of the quadrigeminal and internal geniculate bodies Oh. The crossed auditory pathway also fits here. From the internal geniculate bodies, the third segment of the auditory pathway begins, which passes through the internal bursa and approaches the temporal lobe, where the central nucleus of the auditory analyzer is located. With unilateral damage to the auditory nerve and its nuclei, deafness develops in the ear of the same name. With unilateral damage to the auditory pathways (in particular, the lateral lemniscus), as well as the cortical auditory zone, no obvious auditory disorders occur, but there is a slight decrease in hearing in the opposite ear (due to double innervation). Complete cortical deafness is possible only with bilateral lesions in the corresponding auditory areas. The vestibular apparatus, starting from the Scarpian node and traveling some distance together with the auditory branch, enters the cavity of the medulla oblongata and approaches its nuclei (angular nucleus). The angular nucleus includes the lateral Deiters nucleus, the upper Bekhterev nucleus and the inner nucleus. From the angular nucleus, conductors go to the cerebellar vermis (dentate and roofing nuclei), to the spinal cord along the fibers of the vestibulospinal and posterior longitudinal fasciculus. Through the latter, communication is made with the visual thalamus. When the vestibular apparatus, as well as the vestibular nerve and its nuclei, is damaged, balance is upset, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting appear.

IX pair - The glossopharyngeal nerve, in terms of fiber composition, includes both sensory and motor, as well as secretory fibers. The glossopharyngeal nerve originates from four nuclei located in the medulla oblongata. The ninth pair of nerves is closely connected with the tenth pair by the vagus nerve (some nuclei are common to the vagus nerve). The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies sensory (taste) fibers to the posterior third of the tongue and palate, and also innervates the middle ear and pharynx along with the vagus nerve. The motor fibers of this nerve, together with the branches of the vagus nerve, supply the muscles of the pharynx (see Fig. 1.8).

Secretory fibers innervate the parotid salivary gland. When the glossopharyngeal nerve is damaged, a number of disorders are observed, for example, taste disorders, decreased sensitivity in the pharynx, as well as mild spasms of the pharyngeal muscles. In some cases, salivation may be impaired.

X pair- nervus vagus. Departs from the nuclei located in the medulla oblongata. Some of the nuclei are shared with the ninth pair. The vagus nerve performs a number of complex sensory, motor and secretory functions. Thus, it supplies motor and sensory fibers to the muscles of the pharynx (together with the IX nerve), soft palate, larynx, epiglottis, vocal cords (see Fig. 1.8). Unlike other cranial nerves, this nerve extends far beyond the skull and innervates the trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart, gastrointestinal tract and some other internal organs, as well as blood vessels. Thus, the further course of its fibers takes part in autonomic innervation, forming its own figurative system - the parasympathetic. If the function of the vagus nerve is impaired, especially with bilateral partial damage, a swallowing disorder, a change in voice timbre (nasal, nasal tone), up to complete anarthria may occur; There are a number of severe disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. If the function of the vagus nerve is completely turned off, death may occur due to paralysis of cardiac and respiratory activity.

XI pair- accessory nerve. It is a motor nerve. Its nuclei are located in the spinal and medulla oblongata. The fibers of this nerve innervate the muscles of the neck and shoulder girdle (see Fig. 1.8), due to which movements such as turning the head, raising the shoulders, and bringing the shoulder blades to the spine are carried out. When the accessory nerve is damaged, atrophic paralysis of these muscles develops, as a result of which it is difficult to turn the head and the shoulder is lowered. When the nerve is irritated, tonic spasms of the neck muscles may occur, causing the head to forcefully tilt to the side (torticollis). Clonic convulsion in the indicated muscles (bilateral) causes violent nodding movements.

XII pair- hypoglossal nerve. The fibers start from the nucleus located at the bottom of the rhomboid fossa. They innervate the muscles of the tongue, which gives it maximum flexibility and mobility. When the hypoglossal nerve is damaged, its ability to make movements necessary to perform is weakened. speech function and functions of food. In such cases, speech becomes unclear, and it becomes impossible to pronounce complex words. When the hypoglossal nerve is damaged bilaterally, speech becomes impossible (anarthria). A typical picture of speech and phonation disorders is observed with a combined lesion of the IX, X and CP pairs of nerves, known as bulbar palsy (Fig. 1.9). In these cases, the nuclei of the medulla oblongata or the roots and nerves extending from them are affected. Paralysis of the tongue, severe speech disorders, as well as swallowing disorders, choking, liquid food poured through the nose, and the voice acquires a nasal tone are observed. Such paralysis is accompanied by muscle atrophy and has all the signs of peripheral paralysis.

The most common cases of damage central path(cortical-bulbar). In childhood, for example, after parainfectious encephalitis, with bilateral damage to the corticobulbar tracts, phenomena develop that are outwardly similar to bulbar palsy, but differ in the nature of localization. Since this paralysis is central in nature, muscle atrophy is not observed with it. This type of disorder is known as pseudobulbar palsy.

RETICULAR FORMATION

The reticular formation is a network-like formation, an accumulation of neurons of different sizes with densely intertwined processes, located in the central parts of the brain stem and spinal cord. It was first described in the middle of the 19th century; the term was proposed by O. Deiters in 1865.

Physiology. The reticular formation has an activating effect on the cerebral cortex and controls the reflex activity of the spinal cord. It regulates conditioned and complex unconditioned reflexes that close at the level of the brain stem: vomiting, yawning, coughing, sneezing, sleep, wakefulness, active attention.

Pathology. Damage to the reticular formation of the brain stem and its connections with the superior and underlying formations of the central nervous system may be accompanied by disturbances in movements, consciousness, sleep, autonomic disorders. Motor disorders are manifested by increased muscle tone. In the case of increased activity of inhibitory influences, a decrease in muscle tone and reflexes occurs, which contributes to the occurrence of paralysis, paresis, hyperkinesis, and extrapyramidal rigidity. Disruption of the activity of the deep parts of the brain, in particular the limbic-hypothalamoreticular system, can cause disorders of metabolic processes, thermoregulation, and disruption of the correct course of the sleep-wake cycle. As a result, some forms of behavior also change, sudden changes in mood, depression, and euphoria are possible.

Taking into account information about the pathology of the reticular formation and other deep parts of the brain contributes to understanding the pathogenesis of speech and personality deviations from the norm. Knowledge of the neurological basis of the defect makes correctional work meaningful, targeted, and effective.

Treatment. For stimulation, adrenaline, caffeine, nialamide, sydnocarb and other leichotonics, as well as nootropic drugs, are prescribed. For psychomotor agitation, barbiturates, phenothiazine neuroleptics (aminemin, propazine, neuleptin, etc.), tranquilizers (sibazon, phenazepam, trioxazine, etc.) are indicated. When increasing muscle tone are used mydocalm, baclofen (Lioresal). Etiotropic therapy is carried out.

Speech Comprehension Assessment

For every person, speech is the most important means of communication. The formation of oral speech begins from the very early periods child development and includes several stages: from screams and babble to conscious self-expression using various linguistic techniques.

There are such concepts as oral, written, impressive and expressive speech. They characterize the processes of understanding, perceiving and reproducing speech sounds, the formation of phrases that will be spoken or written in the future, as well as correct location words in sentences.

Oral and written forms of speech: concept and meaning

Oral expressive speech actively involves the organs of articulation (tongue, palate, teeth, lips). But, by and large, the physical reproduction of sounds is only a consequence of brain activity. Any word, sentence or phrase first represents an idea or image. After their complete formation occurs, the brain sends a signal (order) to the speech apparatus.

Written speech and its types directly depend on how developed oral speech is since, in essence, it is the visualization of the same signals that the brain dictates. However, the peculiarities of written speech allow a person to more carefully and accurately select words, improve a sentence and correct what was written earlier.

Thanks to this, written speech becomes more literate and correct compared to oral speech. While for oral speech the important indicators are voice timbre, speed of conversation, clarity of sound, intelligibility, written speech is characterized by the clarity of handwriting, its legibility, as well as the arrangement of letters and words in relation to each other.

By studying the processes of oral and written speech, specialists compose general concept about the person’s condition, possible violations of his health, as well as their causes. Impaired speech function can be found both in children who have not yet fully developed speech and in adults who have suffered a stroke or suffer from other diseases. In the latter case, speech may be fully or partially restored.

Impressive and expressive speech: what is it?

Impressive speech is a mental process that accompanies the understanding of various types of speech (written and oral). Recognition of speech sounds and their perception is a complex mechanism. The most actively involved in it are:

sensory speech area in the cerebral cortex, also called Wernicke's area;
auditory analyzer.

Impaired functioning of the latter provokes changes in impressive speech. An example is the impressive speech of deaf people, which is based on recognizing spoken words by lip movements. At the same time, the basis of their written impressive speech is the tactile perception of three-dimensional symbols (dots).

Schematically, Wernicke's area can be described as a kind of card index containing sound images of all words acquired by a person. Throughout his life, a person refers to this data, replenishes and corrects it. As a result, the sound images of words that are stored there are destroyed. The result of this process is the inability to recognize the meaning of spoken or written words. Even with excellent hearing, a person does not understand what is being said (or written) to him.

Expressive speech and its types are the process of pronouncing sounds, which can be contrasted with impressive speech (their perception).

The process of forming expressive speech

Starting from the first months of life, the child learns to perceive words addressed to him. Directly expressive speech, that is, the formation of a plan, inner speech and pronunciation of sounds, develops as follows:

Screams.
Booming.
The first syllables are like a type of humming.
Babble.
Simple words.
Words related to the adult vocabulary.

As a rule, the development of expressive speech is closely related to how and how much time parents spend communicating with their child.

Children's vocabulary size, correct sentence production, and formulation of their own thoughts are influenced by everything they hear and see around them. The formation of expressive speech occurs as a result of imitation of the actions of others and the desire to actively communicate with them. Attachment to parents and loved ones becomes the best motivation for a child, stimulating him to expand his vocabulary and emotionally charged verbal communication.

Expressive language impairment is a direct consequence of developmental disabilities, injury or illness. But most deviations from normal speech development can be corrected and regulated.

How are speech development disorders identified?

Speech therapists examine the speech function of children, conduct tests and analyze the information received. The study of expressive speech is carried out in order to identify the child’s formed grammatical structure of speech, to study vocabulary and sound pronunciation. It is for its pathologies and their causes, as well as for the development of a procedure for correcting disorders, that the following indicators are studied:

Pronunciation of sounds.
The syllabic structure of words.
Level of phonetic perception.

When starting an examination, a qualified speech therapist clearly understands what exactly the goal is, that is, what kind of expressive speech disorder he should identify. The work of a professional includes specific knowledge about how the examination is carried out, what type of materials should be used, as well as how to formalize the results and form conclusions.

Taking into account psychological characteristics Children whose age is preschool (up to seven years), the process of their examination often includes several stages. At each of them, special bright and attractive visual materials for the named age are used.

Sequence of the examination process

Thanks to correct positioning survey process, it is possible to identify various skills and abilities by studying one type of activity. This organization allows you to fill out more than one item on the speech card at one time over a short period of time. An example is a speech therapist’s request to tell a fairy tale. The objects of his attention are:

The information received is analyzed, summarized and entered into certain graphs of speech cards. Such examinations can be individual or carried out for several children at the same time (two or three).

The expressive side of children's speech is studied as follows:

Studying the volume of vocabulary.
Observation of word formation.
Study of the pronunciation of sounds.

Also great importance has an analysis of impressive speech, which includes the study and observation of the understanding of words, sentences and text.

Causes of expressive speech disorders

It should be noted that communication between parents and children who have an expressive language disorder cannot be the cause of the disorder. It affects exclusively the pace and general nature of the development of speech skills.

No specialist can say unequivocally about the reasons leading to the occurrence of child speech disorders. There are several factors, the combination of which increases the likelihood of detecting such deviations:

Genetic predisposition. The presence of expressive speech disorders in one of your close relatives.
The kinetic component is closely related to the neuropsychological mechanism of the disorder.
In the vast majority of cases, impaired expressive speech is associated with insufficient formation of spatial speech (namely, the area of the parietal temporo-occipital junction). This becomes possible with left hemisphere localization speech centers, as well as in case of dysfunction in the left hemisphere.
Insufficient development of neural connections, accompanying organic damage to the areas of the cortex responsible for speech (usually in right-handed people).
Unfavorable social environment: people who have very low Expressive speech in children who are in constant contact with such people may have deviations.

When establishing probable ones, one should not exclude the possibility of deviations in the functioning of the hearing aid, various mental disorders, congenital malformations of the organs of articulation and other diseases. As has already been proven, full-fledged expressive speech can be developed only in those children who are able to correctly imitate the sounds they hear. Therefore, timely examination of hearing and speech organs is extremely important.

In addition to the reasons listed above, there may be infectious diseases, insufficient development of the brain, its injuries, tumor processes (pressure on brain structures), hemorrhage into the brain tissue.

What types of expressive speech disorders occur?

Among expressive speech disorders, the most common is dysarthria - the inability to use the speech organs (tongue paralysis). Its frequent manifestations are chanted speech. Manifestations of aphasia are also not uncommon - disturbances in speech function that have already formed. Its peculiarity is the preservation of the articulatory apparatus and full hearing, but the ability to actively use speech is lost.

There are three possible forms of expressive language disorder (motor aphasia):

Afferent. It is observed if the postcentral parts of the dominant cerebral hemisphere become damaged. They provide the kinesthetic basis necessary for full movements of the articulation apparatus. Therefore, it becomes impossible to voice some sounds. Such a person cannot pronounce letters that are similar in their method of formation: for example, sibilant or prelingual. The consequence is a violation of all types of oral speech: automated, spontaneous, repeated, naming. In addition, there are difficulties with reading and writing.
Efferent. Occurs when the lower parts of the premotor area are damaged. It is also called Broca's area. With this disorder, the articulation of specific sounds does not suffer (as with afferent aphasia). For such people, switching between different speech units (sounds and words) causes difficulty. While clearly pronouncing individual speech sounds, a person cannot pronounce a series of sounds or a phrase. Instead of productive speech, perseveration or (in some cases) speech embolus is observed.

It is worth mentioning separately such a feature of efferent aphasia as the telegraphic style of speech. Its manifestations are the exclusion of verbs from the dictionary and the predominance of nouns. Involuntary, automated speech and singing may be preserved. The functions of reading, writing and naming verbs are impaired.

Dynamic. It is observed when the prefrontal regions, the areas in front, are affected. The main manifestation of such a disorder is a disorder affecting active voluntary productive speech. However, reproductive speech (repeated, automated) is preserved. For such a person, expressing thoughts and asking questions is difficult, but articulating sounds, repeating individual words and sentences, and answering questions correctly are not difficult.

A distinctive feature of all types is the person’s understanding of the speech addressed to him, the completion of all tasks, but the impossibility of repetition or independent expression. Speech with obvious defects is also common.

Agraphia as a separate manifestation of expressive language disorder

Agraphia is the loss of the ability to write correctly, which is accompanied by preservation of motor function of the hands. It occurs as a consequence of damage to the secondary associative fields of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain.

This disorder becomes concomitant with oral speech disorders and is extremely rarely observed as a separate disease. Agraphia is a sign of a certain type of aphasia. As an example, we can cite the connection between damage to the premotor area and a disorder of the unified kinetic structure of writing.

In the case of minor damage, a person suffering from agraphia may correctly write specific letters, but may misspell syllables and words. It is likely that there are inert stereotypes and a violation of the sound-letter analysis of the composition of words. Therefore, such people find it difficult to reproduce the required order of letters in words. They may repeat individual actions several times that disrupt the overall writing process.

Alternative interpretation of the term

The term “expressive speech” refers not only to types of speech and features of its formation from the point of view of neurolinguistics. It is the definition of the category of styles in the Russian language.

Expressive styles of speech exist in parallel with functional ones. The latter include bookish and conversational. Written forms of speech are official business and scientific. They belong to book functional styles. Conversational is represented by the oral form of speech.

Means of expressive speech increase its expressiveness and are designed to enhance the impact on the listener or reader.

The word “expression” itself means “expressiveness”. The elements of such vocabulary are words designed to increase the degree of expressiveness of oral or written speech. Often, several expressive synonyms can be selected for one neutral word. They may vary depending on the degree of emotional stress. There are also often cases when for one neutral word there is a whole set of synonyms that have exactly the opposite connotation.

The expressive coloring of speech can have a rich range of different stylistic shades. Dictionaries include special symbols and notes to identify such synonyms:

solemn, high;
rhetorical;
poetic;
humorous;
ironic;
familiar;
disapproving;
dismissive;
contemptuous;
derogatory;
sulgaric;
abusive.

The use of expressively colored words must be appropriate and competent. Otherwise, the meaning of the statement may be distorted or take on a comical sound.

Expressive speech styles

Representatives modern science about the language the following styles are classified as:

The contrast to all these styles is neutral, which is completely devoid of any expression.

Emotionally expressive speech actively uses three types of evaluative vocabulary: effective remedy, helping to achieve the desired expressive coloring:

The use of words that have a clear evaluative meaning. This should include words that characterize someone. Also in this category are words that evaluate facts, phenomena, signs and actions.
Words with significant meaning. Their main meaning is often neutral, however, when used in a metaphorical sense, they acquire a rather bright emotional connotation.
Suffixes, the use of which with neutral words allows you to convey the most different shades emotions and feelings.

In addition, the generally accepted meaning of words and the associations attached to them have direct influence on their emotional and expressive coloring.

Emotional vocabulary.

Language in its communicative function serves not only as a means of expressing thoughts, but also as a means of expressing feelings and will.

When showing and expressing feelings in language, special emotional vocabulary is used, although emotions can be expressed by other linguistic means (affixes, intonation, special syntactic constructions, interjections, etc.)

In emotional vocabulary there are 2 groups.

1. Vocabulary used to denote the feelings, sensations, moods themselves: fear, kindness, pride, anger, rudeness, fun, fear, love, etc.

2.Vocabulary used as a means of expressing assessment with emotional side, i.e. from the outside subjective attitude speaker: kind, evil, cheerful, affectionate, nasty, etc.

Emotions are expressed not only lexically, but also morphologically, i.e. certain suffixes, prefixes whose function is to express a subjective attitude:

grandfather - grandfather

grandma - grandma - grandma - granny, granny

leg - leg - leg.

For adjectives: quiet, dry, dear, very large.

Often words with such suffixes convey affection, contempt, indignation, and disdain.

Typically, emotional vocabulary expresses the positive or negative attitude of the speaker, creating antonymic pairs: kind - evil, good - bad, sweet - lively, etc.

Emotionality in language should not be equated with expressiveness.

These are different phenomena. There is a special emotional vocabulary, but there is no expressive vocabulary in the language.

Expression – from the Latin expression “expression”; expressiveness - expressiveness, expressive - expressive.

Expression of speech - this is an increase in expressiveness, an increase in the impact of what is said.

Everything that makes speech more vivid, powerful, deeply impressive is expression.

Hence, expressiveness of speech - these are the means that make speech expressive, impactful, visual, impressive.

Expressiveness of speech is expressed by the following means:

1.Individual words and phrases from synonymous words of different evaluative gradations: works a lot - works well, resounding success, huge success, amazing success.

2. Paired synonymous expressions of one concept: a long time ago, young - young woman.

3. Different synonymous words: grief-adversity, share-happiness, truth-truth, early in the morning, late in the evening.

4. Words with diminutive forms, although these words do not have a diminutive meaning: day, week, year, minute, once.

These words are expressively colored and perform stylistic functions.

Thus, the presence of expressive-emotional coloring of those elements of language that serve as style-forming means is noted.

I.Stylistically neutral (inter-style) vocabulary.

This large group words used in all styles of language. These words perform a nominative function, but have no emotional connotation. These are the following groups of words:

1. words naming specific objects, abstract concepts: fire, water, earth, tree, house...;

2. quality and characteristics of objects: big, beautiful, red...;

3. actions and states: live, be, fly, sleep, write.

ΙΙ.Book vocabulary.

It is divided into scientific, official and business, newspaper and journalistic, and poetic (high).

General signs:

1. basis – interstyle vocabulary;

2. use of words in a direct, generally accepted meaning (except for poetic);

3. The use of colloquial dialect and slang words in a figurative meaning is not allowed.

In one of the recent blog articles “ Literary workshop"(") we talked about the emotional component of language. At that time, we examined the theoretical (or, if you prefer, methodological) basis of this very interesting phenomenon. And today we have to figure out how to use the acquired theoretical knowledge in practice. How can an author have an emotional impact on the reader? What techniques are used to achieve the effect of emotional empathy? Read all about it in today's post.

Emphase.

What we are going to talk about is called emphasis in literary theory.

Emphase – this is giving the author’s thought special expressiveness through the emotionally expressive highlighting of any element in it.

For example: “Well, you’re good!” Intonation emphasis of the word “ good"makes an initially neutral phrase emotionally charged. This is the meaning of emphasis.

Emphasis is not an independent figure of speech. Emphasis is the result, the emotional impact which is achieved through the use of special techniques.

How is such an effect achieved? Of course, with the help of emotionally charged words. But not only that. It happens that authors deliberately introduce entire blocks of expressive speech into the text. It is these blocks that are of main interest to us.

Here's how, for example, the Strugatsky brothers do it:

“I jumped on the spot, testing the fastenings, whooped and ran towards the sun, increasing the pace, closing my eyes from the sun and pleasure, with every exhalation throwing out the boredom of smoky offices, musty papers, tearful people under investigation and grumbling authorities, the melancholy of mournful political disputes and bearded jokes, petty worries of the wife and attacks of the younger generation... dull muddy streets, corridors stinking of sealing wax, empty mouths of gloomy safes like damaged tanks, faded blue wallpaper in the dining room, and faded pink wallpaper in the bedroom, and ink-splattered yellow wallpaper in the nursery... with with every exhalation, freeing himself from himself - an official, highly moral, creakingly law-abiding little man with light buttons, an attentive husband and an exemplary father, a hospitable comrade and an affable relative, rejoicing that all this is going away, hoping that all this is going away irrevocably, that from now on everything will be easy, elastic, crystal clear, at a frantic, cheerful, young pace, and how great it is that I came here...”

As you can see, this piece is noticeably different from what we are used to seeing in ordinary texts. This piece is structured and written in a special way. The first thing that catches your eye is that this passage is, in fact, one big sentence (we note to ourselves the first moment in creating an emphatic effect). While other proposals have normal size, this stands out great against their background. Second important feature is that in this large sentence there is a significant number of homogeneous members. This overloads the reader’s perception, creating the effect of “talking on”, emotional confusion, and an unstable psychological state. In such a series of homogeneous members, epithets and comparisons flare up, the authors do not hesitate to use emotionally charged vocabulary. By and large, this sentence is an electrified clot of expressive speech in the general canvas of the text.

Let's try to highlight what the main principles of constructing an emphatic, expressive block in the text are:

Long sentence;
A large number of homogeneous members;
Expressive vocabulary;
Epithets, metaphors, hyperboles, repetitions and any other means of expression.

Special techniques.

However, if everything were so simple and straightforward, the reader would have long ago become bored with all these long and monotonous expressive pieces. Therefore, it is quite natural that each such block should be given a certain mood, exactly the one that you want to evoke in the reader.

In this regard, the first phrase with which the emphatic “monologue” begins is extremely important. This could also be a rhetorical question (“ How long can you endure all this?"), and exclamation (" I'm over it!"), and appeal (" People, recognize yourself in me!"). Here the main task is to indicate the motive, the direction of further emotional movement. Of course, the tastier the phrase, the more it attracts the eye. But the main thing that is still required of her is to make it clear to the reader that there will now be a strong emotional fragment.

The second interesting technique is the repetition of the same keywords throughout the fragment, as well as the use of anaphora and epiphora. Anaphora - this is the purposeful repetition of the same words (sounds) at the beginning of each sentence or passage: For example:

"Our weapons are our songs,

Epiphora - This is the purposeful repetition of the same words or sounds at the end of sentences or passages.

For example : Scallops, all scallops: a cape made of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes made of scallops, scallops below, scallops everywhere.

Anaphora and epiphora can significantly enhance the emotional intensity of an episode. These are some of the most effective stylistic figures.

The third point, which we have already touched upon above, is the very “throwing” or “stringing” of homogeneous members of a sentence. In literary theory this technique is called gradation.

Gradation - this is a stylistic figure consisting of a successively increasing grouping of expressions related to one subject.

For example: “To the village, to my aunt, to the wilderness, to Saratov”

The technique of gradation is used in our case to create increasing tension in the text.

Another interesting point that can be used when working on an expressive passage is a sharp and unexpected shift in syntactic structures.

And to me, Onegin, this pomp,

Life's hateful tinsel,

My successes are in a whirlwind of light,

My fashionable house and evenings,

What's in them?

That is, the intonation and rhythmic component in such passages, at the author’s request, can be abruptly interrupted and move into a completely different direction. This also well emphasizes the emotionality of our “monologue”.

Well, the last technique that is worth mentioning is the use multi-union(or in some cases - non-union). Without using these techniques, it is quite difficult to imagine the creation of gradation as such. Therefore, it is imperative to know about this.

Example of a multi-union:

But a grandson, and a great-grandson, and a great-great-grandson

They grow in me while I grow...

Or non-union:

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

In both fragments the creation of gradation is observed. However, in the first case, in conjunction with homogeneous members, the same conjunction is used each time. This is called multi-union. In the second case, any unions in the chain of homogeneous members are completely ignored - this is non-union. Both techniques allow equally successful construction of gradation. That's what we, as authors, need.

In conclusion, I would like to give one more example of constructing an emotional fragment.

“Who has he become? Traitor, murderer? These words sounded stingy, cold, even tactless; they only formally designated what he had done, what hell he had turned the lives of dozens of innocent people into: his friends, their relatives, and others, and others, and others. Their faces stood before our eyes as grotesque masks: monstrous casts of dead, lifeless, disfigured faces. And he screamed in the darkness and emptiness, in the cruel cold that crept inside, turning his heart not even into stone, but into a piece of vomit. The exhausted body was spinning in agony, the icy foaming water enveloped him and roared: thousands, thousands of throats called him into the depths, into the cave of the master and lord, the evil genius and the stealer of souls. The boy fulfilled the contract, the most monstrous of which could not have been imagined, and continued to scream that it would be better for him to die on his own, but the screams only hung over his head like ethereal bubbles - the thirst for life was too strong, the rope with this world was too strong, the young will..."

As you can see, it uses almost all the elements discussed above.

That's all for today. I hope you understand what emphasis is and how an emotional impact on the reader is achieved. Leave your questions and comments! See you soon!

Speech is a form of communication that has developed in the process of human activity, mediated by language.

Speech is the result of coordinated activity of many areas of the brain. The organs of articulation only carry out orders coming from the brain.

Sensory (impressive) speech is the perception and understanding of speech. In 1874 E. Wernicke found that there is a sensory speech zone in the cerebral cortex. It was called Wernicke's area. Damage to the superior temporal gyrus leads to the fact that a person hears words, but does not understand their meaning, since in Wernicke’s area, as in a kind of card index, all words learned by a person are stored, more precisely, their sound images, and he all life uses this “card index”. If this zone is damaged, then the sound images of words stored there disintegrate, and the person ceases to understand the words. With normal hearing, he remains deaf to words.

There are also motor (expressive) speech is the pronunciation of speech sounds by a person himself. In 1861 French neurosurgeon P. Broca discovered that when the brain is damaged in the area of the second and third frontal gyri, a person loses the ability to articulate speech; he makes only incoherent sounds, although he retains the ability to understand what others are saying. This speech motor area, or Broca's area, is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in right-handers, and in most cases in the right hemisphere in left-handers. All work on the formation of motor and speech programs occurs in Broca's area. Therefore, when this zone is damaged, a person can only make inarticulate sounds, and is unable to connect them into words.

Much work on drawing up a “map” of the speech zones of the brain was carried out by the Canadian neurosurgeon W. Penfield. In addition to Broca's and Wernicke's areas, Penfield discovered an additional (superior) speech area that plays a supporting role. He was able to reveal the close relationship of all three speech areas, which act as a single speech mechanism (Fig. 1.4). When one of the speech zones of the cortex was removed from a patient, the speech disturbances that arose after some time became smaller, although they did not completely disappear. Consequently, the preserved speech areas performed the functions of the deleted area to some extent. It is in the compensatory capabilities of the brain that the principle of reliability in ensuring speech activity, which is extremely important in human life, is manifested. The speech areas differ in this respect from many other cortical areas. For example, if part of the cortex of the visual or auditory areas is removed, then the impaired functions cannot be restored

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