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Introduction

Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, inherent only to humans and, at the same time, one of the complex mental functions.

Visual, auditory, motor and kinesthetic analyzers take part in the implementation of speech function, as well as writing and reading.

For normal speech activity, the coordinated functioning of the entire brain and other parts of the nervous system is necessary. Speech mechanisms have a complex and multi-stage organization.

Speech is the most important function of the human cerebral cortex, carried out by its various sections, which include the cortical speech zones of the dominant hemisphere.

The purpose of this work is to study cortical speech areas.

The work consists of an introduction, main part and bibliography.

Cortical speech areas

Sound, like written speech, is the ability to symbolically reflect objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and ourselves in this world. The speech function is controlled by the higher parts of the human brain - the cerebral cortex, significant areas of the sensory and motor areas of which are specialized for the perception, understanding, memorization and reproduction of speech, as well as the subcortical formations of the brain, which are associated with emotions and memory.

The role of individual areas of the cerebral cortex was first studied in 1870 by German scientists G. Fritsch and E. Gitzig. It has been established that different areas of the cortex are responsible for certain functions. A doctrine was created about the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex. Domestic authors have introduced a lot of new data into this teaching. For example, Kyiv anatomist V.A. Betz proved in 1874 that each part of the cortex differs in structure from other parts of the brain. This marked the beginning of the doctrine of the different qualities of the cerebral cortex. I.P. Pavlov considered the cerebral cortex as a continuous perceptive surface, as a collection of cortical ends of analyzers. He proved that the cortical end of the analyzer is not any strictly defined zone. The cerebral cortex is divided into a nucleus and scattered elements. The nucleus is the site of concentration of cortical neurons, constituting the exact projection of all the elements of a particular receptor, where higher analysis, synthesis and integration of functions occur. Scattered elements can be located both along the periphery of the nucleus and at a considerable distance from it. They carry out simpler analysis and synthesis. The presence of scattered elements during the destruction (damage) of the core partly makes it possible to compensate for the impaired function.

According to the most common classification by K. Brodmann, 52 cell fields are identified in the cortex, each of which has its own serial number (1,2,3.52).

Depending on the functional characteristics in the cortex, motor (motor), sensory (sensitive) and associative zones are distinguished, which carry out connections between different zones of the cortex. In this work, we will consider one of the most important functional areas of the cortex - htheyspeeches.

The cortex has several zones responsible for speech function:

1) The motor center of speech (P. Broca's center) is located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere - in "right-handers", in the frontal lobe of the right - in "left-handers".

2) The sensory speech center (C. Wernicke’s center) is located in the temporal lobe.

3) The area that provides the perception of written (visual) speech is located in the angular gyrus of the inferior parietal lobule.

Speech, as the most important function of the cerebral cortex, is carried out by its various sections, which include cortical speech zones dominant hemisphere. There are two main language areas in the human brain (Broca's and Wernicke's areas). Both are located in the left hemisphere (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 - Speech zones of the cortex: Wernicke's area and Broca's area, connected by a fibrous tract, the so-called. arcuate beam (shown by an arrow)

In the cerebral cortex there are three sensory fields that are most important for speech function:

visual - on the occipital surface of both hemispheres;

auditory - in the temporal gyrus of each hemisphere;

somatosensory - in the posterior central gyrus of each hemisphere.

In the anterior central gyrus of the right and left hemispheres there is primary motor field, which controls the muscles of the face, limbs and torso. It is what determines speech and writing. There are also secondary sensory, associative and motor fields. First of all, this is the first temporal gyrus - regionWernicke, ensuring speech understanding, as well as the most important integrative part of the brain - the frontal lobe, which regulates speech software, concentrated in zoneBroca in the prefrontal cortex.

A person’s ability to analyze and synthesize speech sounds is closely related to the development of phonemic hearing, i.e. hearing, which ensures the perception and understanding of phonemes of a given language. Phonemic analysis is a person’s ability to analyze and synthesize speech sounds, i.e. perception and understanding of language phonemes. And the main role in the adequate functioning of phonemic hearing belongs to such a central organ of speech as the auditory-speech zone of the cerebral cortex - this is zoneWernicke, located at the base of the left temporal lobe (or right for left-handers) - approximately halfway from the temple to the back of the head.

ZoneWernicke responsible for the perception of someone else’s speech, its semantic (meaning) analysis, as well as for organizing the “content” of our own speech. Not for the selection of specific words, but rather for the formulation of ideas, the formation of the main intention of our statements. ZoneWernicke thinks in terms of “phrases”.

ZoneWernicke is also of great importance for understanding speech. The sound of a word is perceived by the primary auditory cortex, but the signals processed here must pass through the adjacent zoneWernicke so that sounds are interpreted as speech. Further information is transmitted simultaneously to zoneBroca(secondary speech zone), which in individuals with speech dominance in the left hemisphere, is located in the lower parts of the third frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere, and in the depths of the temporal lobe, where our vocabulary is “stored”.

ZoneBroca provides motor organization of speech. The temporal lobe produces zoneBroca selected words that match the ordered meaning are already in their phonetic structure. ZoneBroca, juggling words, forms sentences, organizes grammar and syntax - in order to transport the ready-made text to the articulatory motor zone closest to it. And we talk.

Speech as a deep brain function asymmetrical. Human linguistic abilities are carried out primarily by the left hemisphere, the structures of which act as a single speech mechanism. After the information contained in a word is processed in the auditory system or in the “non-auditory” formations of the brain, it must be recognized by its meaning. This process is carried out in zoneWernicke. It is here that the meaning of the incoming signal is understood - words.

If written speech is perceived, the primary visual cortex is first activated. After this, information about the word read enters the angular gyrus, which connects the visual form of the word with its acoustic analogue in zoneWernicke. To pronounce a word it is necessary that it be analyzed representation in zoneBroca located in the frontal gyrus. IN zoneBroca information received from zonesWernicke, lead to the emergence of a detailed articulation program by activating the motor cortex, which controls the facial muscles and is associated with zoneBroca short fibers.

cortical speech area brain

The cortical areas of the left hemisphere play a specific role in the perception, memorization and reproduction of speech material. It is these zones that are necessary for the full implementation of speech function as a single sensory, mental and motor process. The zones located in front are especially important for the implementation of expressive (expressive) speech, and those located behind are especially important for the perception of meaning and speech.

Speech regulation is carried out with the participation of the limbic system of the brain, which determines the intonation characteristics of speech and its emotional character. Many other subcortical structures of the brain are also involved in speech function.

Thus, the participation of the left hemisphere is necessary for the detection and identification of articulated speech sounds, and the right hemisphere for the recognition of intonations, street and household noises, and musical melodies.

A high level of general speech activity is provided by the left hemisphere, and improved signal separation from noise is provided by the right hemisphere. Right hemisphere: unable to implement commands to produce speech, but it provides understanding of spoken language and written words. The understanding of speech carried out by the right hemisphere is limited to specific nouns, to a lesser extent to verbal nouns, and to an even lesser extent to verbs. The right hemisphere provides understanding of the emotional content of intonations, recognition by voice, and is involved in the modulation of voice frequencies.

Monitors speech reproduction accuracy auditory reverse connection, as well as afferentation from muscular And articular receptors speech-forming organs.

The subcortical pathway is involved in automated speech processes that do not require thinking. The cortical pathway is involved in the conscious control of speech. These pathways operate simultaneously and in parallel.

The right and left hemispheres have different functions but work together to support goal-directed behavior.

And each hemisphere has departments of special thinking: the left - speech, the right - visual-spatial.

The left hemisphere processes information analytically and sequentially, while the right hemisphere processes information simultaneously and holistically.

Each hemisphere makes its own unique contribution to speech and thinking.

AtdefeatcenterWernicke phonemic hearing impairments occur, difficulties appear in understanding oral speech and writing from dictation (sensory aphasia). The speech of such a patient is quite fluent, but usually meaningless, because the patient does not notice his defects.

DefeatzonesBroca causes efferent motor aphasia, in which one’s own speech is impaired, but the understanding of someone else’s is preserved.

With efferent motor aphasia, the kinetic melody of words is disrupted due to the impossibility of smooth switching from one element of the utterance to another. Patients with Broca's aphasia are aware of their mistakes.

Damage to another part of the anterior speech zones (in the lower parts of the premotor cortex) is accompanied by so-called dynamic aphasia, when the patient loses the ability to formulate a statement and translate his thoughts into expanded speech.

So, clinical data obtained from the study of local brain lesions, as well as the results of electrical stimulation of brain structures, made it possible to clearly identify those specialized structures of the cortex and subcortical formations that are responsible for the ability to pronounce and understand speech.

Subsequently, based on a dynamic study of a significant number of patients with injuries to various parts of the brain, it was shown that if in the initial period of injury speech disorders are observed when wide areas of the left hemisphere are affected, then persistent speech defects remain only in cases of damage to much more limited areas of the brain, which in generally coincide with the above-mentioned “speech zone” (A.R. Luria and others).

In the 60s The studies of V. Penfield, who during open-brain operations using weak currents irritated the speech zones of the cortex (Broca and Wernicke) and obtained changes in the speech activity of patients, became widely known.

These facts were confirmed in later works. It was found that with the help of electrical stimulation it is possible to identify all the zones and areas of the cortex that are involved in the performance of a particular speech task, and these areas are very specialized in relation to the characteristics of speech activity. However, the dominance of one of the hemispheres in relation to speech functions turned out to be not at all as absolute as one might have expected, and the degree of this dominance, as studies have shown, varies significantly from subject to subject and from function to function.

Even Jackson (1869) suggested that speech is carried out by the joint work of both hemispheres, with the left, dominant, hemisphere associated with the most complex forms of voluntary speech, while the right hemisphere carries out the more elementary functions of automated speech.

For normal speech activity, the integrity of the visual and auditory areas, the motor representation of the speech muscles, centersBrocaAndWernicke and angular gyrus. Recent neurophysiological studies have shown that the brain system for providing speech, along with the cortical centers listed above, also includes a number of subcortical structures.

Many authors returned to the idea of ​​the joint participation of both hemispheres in the implementation of complex (including speech) mental functions; in Soviet psychology, this position was developed by B.G. Ananyev (1960).

Bibliography

1. Bloom F. Brain, mind and behavior / F. Bloom A. Leiserson L. Hofstadter. - M.: Publishing house "Mir", 1988. - 248 p.

2. Luria A.R. Higher cortical functions of humans and their disturbances in local brain lesions / A.R. Luria. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - 621 p.

3. Maryutina T.M. Psychophysiology / T.M. Maryutina, I.M. Kondakov - M.: MGPPU, 2004. - 400 p.

4. Psychophysiology. Textbook for universities / Ed. Yu.I. Alexandrova. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 496 p.

5. Vartanyan I.A. Physiology of sensory systems / I.A. Vartanyan. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999. - 310 p.

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The human cerebral cortex contains three sensory fields that are essential for speech function:

· Visual (in the area of ​​the calcarine groove on the medial surface of the occipital lobes of the right and left sides);

· Auditory (in the area of ​​Heschl's transverse gyri);

· Somatosensory (in the posterior central gyrus of each side).

In addition to the primary ones, there are secondary sensory, associative and motor fields located in close proximity to the primary zones. First of all, this is Wernicke's temporal area, which provides speech understanding, as well as the most important integrative part of the brain is the frontal lobe, which regulates speech software, concentrated in Broca's area (third frontal gyrus). The interaction of the listed cortical zones is carried out due to:

· transcortical associative connections

corticothalamic connections

Back in 1861 French neurosurgeon P. Broca discovered that when the brain is damaged in the area of ​​2-3 frontal gyri, a person loses the ability to articulate speech or makes incoherent sounds, although he retains the ability to understand what others are saying. This speech motor area, or Broca's area, is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in right-handed people.

A little later, in 1874, the German neurologist K. Wernicke established that there was also a sensory speech zone in the superior temporal gyrus. Its defeat leads to the fact that a person hears words, but ceases to understand them, since the connections of words with objects and actions that these words denote are lost. In this case, the patient may repeat words without understanding their meaning. This zone was called Wernicke's zone.

IN motor speech area the movements needed to pronounce sound combinations are selected and their sequence is established, i.e. a program is being implemented according to which the organs of articulation must act.

Canadian neurosurgeon Penfield discovered additional, or upper speech, an area that plays a supporting role. The close relationship of all three speech areas, which act as a single speech mechanism, was shown.

When one of the speech zones of the cortex was removed from a patient, the speech disturbances that arose after some time became less severe. This means that the remaining speech areas took over the functions of the remote speech area. Therefore, speech areas have a principle of reliability. The role of speech areas varies. This was shown by the timing and degree of speech restoration after removal of one or another speech zone.

It turned out that it is easier and more complete to recover when the upper speech zone is removed. When Broca's area is removed, the disturbances are persistent and very significant defects remain, but speech can still be restored. When Wernicke's area is removed, especially if the subcortical structures of the brain are affected, the most severe, often irreversible speech disorders occur.

For the correct flow of a speech act, precise coordination of the work of speech areas is necessary. For example, a child wants to call his mother. From Wernicke's area, where the sound image of the word "mother" is stored, the program of what needs to be said is transmitted to Broca's area. Here a motor program for pronouncing a word is formed, which enters the area of ​​motor projections of the articulatory organs. From the motor projection zone, along nerve pathways, nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscles of the face, lips, larynx, and respiratory muscles, and the child pronounces the word “mother.” This entire complex process is self-regulating, i.e. one link of the act automatically includes the next.

All speech zones are located in the left hemisphere (for right-handed people), but for normal speech the coordinated work of both hemispheres of the brain is necessary. In healthy people, during speech, the activity of symmetrical points of the frontal, temporal, inferior-parietal areas in both hemispheres is precisely coordinated, but the course of nervous processes in the left hemisphere is 3-4 thousandths of a second ahead of the processes in the right. In patients with stuttering, there is a discrepancy in the activity of symmetrical points of up to 44 ms, with the right hemisphere beginning to outstrip the left.

The path from the center to the speech organs is only part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback. They go from the muscles to the center and report to the brain about the position of all muscles involved in articulation at a given time. This allows the brain to make the necessary adjustments to the operation of the articulatory apparatus even before the sound is pronounced. This is a kind of muscle control over the processes of articulation. In addition, there is auditory control: the word that the child pronounces is compared with a standard, a sample of this word, stored in Wernicke’s area. Unlike muscular control, auditory control acts somewhat later, when the word has already been pronounced.

Speech as a brain function is deeply asymmetrical. Human linguistic abilities are determined primarily by the left hemisphere. At the same time, interconnected speech zones located in the posterior temporal region (Wernicke's area), the inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area), the premotor area of ​​the left hemisphere and the supplementary motor cortex, together with the motor cortex of both hemispheres, which controls the coordinated activity of the articulatory apparatus, act as a single speech mechanism.

The ways of implementing cooperation between different areas of the cerebral cortex in the process of speech functions are as follows. After the information contained in a word is processed in the auditory system or in the “non-auditory” formations of the brain (when reading, for example, in the visual cortex), it must be recognized by its meaning. For a person to understand the meaning of speech and develop a speech response program, further processing of the received primary auditory or visual information is necessary. It occurs in Wernicke's area, located in the temporal region in close proximity to the primary auditory system. It is here that the meaning of the incoming signal-word is understood. If written speech is perceived, the primary visual cortex is first activated. After this, information about the word read enters the angular gyrus, which connects the visual form of the word with its acoustic counterpart in Wernicke's area. To pronounce a word, it is necessary that its representation in Broca's area, located in the third frontal gyrus, be activated. After understanding the meaning of speech through the participation of Wernicke's area, activation of Broca's area is provided by a group of fibers called the arcuate fasciculus. In Broca's area, information coming from Wernicke's area leads to the emergence of a detailed articulation program. The implementation of this program is carried out through the activation of the facial projection of the motor cortex, which controls the speech muscles and is connected to Broca's area by short fibers. The path leading to the emergence of a speech reaction during visual perception of written speech is the same as during purely acoustic perception.

With the development of various brain research techniques, knowledge about the cerebral support of speech is being refined and expanded. It has been established that the function of naming objects is performed by different areas of the brain depending on the identity of the object. For example, the naming function for general concepts is localized in the left posterior temporal areas, and for specific concepts, in the left anterior temporal areas.

Has a significant impact on speech functions cerebellum.

Tonal hearing is identical for both hemispheres. The participation of the left hemisphere is necessary for the detection and identification of articulated speech sounds, and the right hemisphere is necessary for the recognition of intonations, traffic and household noises, and musical melodies. The perception and generation of speech sounds is provided by the left hemisphere, and the improvement of signal separation from noise is provided by the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere is not able to implement the command for producing speech, but it provides understanding of spoken language and written words. Speech understanding, carried out by the right hemisphere, is limited to specific nouns, and to a lesser extent to verbs. The right hemisphere provides understanding of the emotional content of intonations, recognition by voice, and is involved in the modulation of voice frequencies.

Speech system control

To assess the successful implementation of a particular motor behavioral program, including a speech program, it is necessary to monitor its implementation both in the process of implementation and in the final result. This assessment is carried out by the brain thanks to feedback systems. A person has three channels for obtaining information about the successful implementation of the speech process: (1) auditory, (2) proprioceptive, (3) visual.

Speech Reproduction Accuracy, i.e. The correspondence of the acoustic form of the speech signal to its acoustic image controls auditory feedback. It begins in the auditory temporal zone and extends all the way to the hair cells of the cochlea of ​​the inner ear.

The accuracy of speech reproduction is controlled by assessments from proprioceptive and kinesthetic receptors located in the muscles and joints of speech-producing organs. Kinesthetic control allows you to prevent an error and make a correction before the sound is pronounced. Control of the final result of the influence of expressive speech on the listener is realized through the visual and auditory channels.

Cortical structures are involved in organizing speech control. In many cases, these two mechanisms (subcortical and cortical) act simultaneously and in parallel. The cerebellum is also involved in the control of speech: when it is disrupted, cerebellar dysarthria is observed.

Related information.

Speech apparatus

The anatomical structure and physical characteristics of the human articulatory organs are well adapted to the production of human speech. And, perhaps, vice versa - human speech in the form in which it was formed in the process of evolution is determined by the physical characteristics of the human organs of articulation and the limitations that are associated with the possibilities of their change and movement in space and time.

Physiologically, speech is a complex motor act carried out according to the mechanism of conditioned reflex activity. It is formed on the basis of kinesthetic stimuli emanating from the speech muscles, including the muscles of the larynx and respiratory muscles.

The sound expressiveness of speech is controlled using an auditory analyzer, the normal activity of which plays a very important role in the development of speech in a child. Speech acquisition occurs in the process of interaction of the child with the environment, in particular with the speech environment, which is a source of imitation for the child. In this case, the child uses not only a sound, but also a visual analyzer, imitating the corresponding movements of the lips, tongue, etc. The kinesthetic stimuli that arise in this case enter the corresponding area of ​​the cerebral cortex. A conditioned reflex connection is established and consolidated between three analyzers (motor, auditory and visual), ensuring the further development of normal speech activity.

Observations on speech development in blind children show that the role of the visual analyzer in speech formation is secondary , since the speech of such children, although it has some peculiarities, develops, in general, normally and, as a rule, without special outside intervention. Thus, the development of speech is associated mainly with the activity of the auditory and motor analyzers.

Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. Therefore, in the speech apparatus there are two closely interconnected parts: the central (regulatory) and peripheral (executive) speech apparatus (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Structure of the speech apparatus

TO central speech apparatus relate:

– cortical ends of analyzers (primarily auditory, visual and motor) involved in the speech act. The cortical end of the auditory analyzer is located in both temporal lobes, the visual one is in the occipital lobes, and the cortical part of the motor analyzer, which ensures the functioning of the muscles of the jaws, lips, tongue, soft palate, larynx, which also takes part in the speech act, is located in the lower parts of these convolutions;

– sensory speech motor apparatus presented proprioceptors located inside the muscles and tendons involved in the speech act, and excited by contractions of the speech muscles. Baroreceptors are located in the pharynx and are excited by changes in pressure on them when pronouncing speech sounds;

– afferent (centripetal) pathways begin in proprioceptors and baroreceptors, and carry the information received from them to the cerebral cortex. The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all activities of the speech organs;

– cortical speech centers located in the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes predominantly in the left hemisphere of the brain. The emotional-figurative component of speech depends on the participation of the right hemisphere.

The frontal gyri (inferior) are the motor area and are involved in the formation of one's own oral speech. The temporal gyri (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli are received. Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else's speech is carried out. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (perception of letter images when reading and writing) and articulation in adults, which also plays an important role in the development of a child’s speech;

– specific speech centers (sensory - Wernicke and motor - Broca), responsible for fine sensory analysis and neuromuscular coordination of speech (Fig. 11)

Auditory sensory (sensitive) Wernicke speech center located in the posterior part of the left superior temporal gyrus. When it is damaged or diseased, disturbances in sound perception occur. Arises sensory aphasia, in which it becomes impossible to distinguish speech elements (phonemes and words) by ear, and, consequently, to understand speech, although hearing acuity and the ability to distinguish non-speech sounds remain normal.

Auditory motor (motor) Broca's speech center located in the posterior part of the second and third frontal gyri of the left hemisphere. Damage or disease of the motor center of speech leads to disruption of the analysis and synthesis of kinesthetic (motor) stimuli that occur when pronouncing speech sounds. Coming motor aphasia, in which it becomes impossible to pronounce words and phrases, although movements of the speech organs not related to speech activity (movements of the tongue and lips, opening and closing the mouth, chewing, swallowing, etc.) are not impaired.

Rice. 11. Areas of motor and auditory analyzers

Speech in the cerebral cortex

1 – motor analyzer (anterocentral gyrus;

2 – motor (motor) speech center (Broca);

3 – sensory speech center (Wernicke)

– subcortical nodes and brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech;

– efferent (centrifugal) pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles that provide speech. They begin in the cerebral cortex in Broca's center.

The efferent pathways also include cranial nerves , which originate in the nuclei of the brain stem and innervate all organs of the peripheral speech apparatus.

Trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw; facial nerve– facial muscles, including the muscles that carry out lip movements, puffing and retraction of the cheeks; glossopharyngeal And vagus nerve – muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs. Accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and gives it the possibility of a variety of movements.

Peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-reproducing).

IN respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea (Fig. 12). The role of the respiratory section in human speech production is one to one reminiscent of the role of the bellows of a wind musical instrument - the organ. This is the supplier of air for sound formation, since speech sounds from a physical point of view are nothing more than mechanical vibrations of exhaled air of various frequencies and strengths that arise in the subsequent peripheral part of the speech apparatus - the vocal apparatus.

Voice department consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it (Fig. 13–14). The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.

From above, the larynx passes into the pharynx, from below - into the windpipe (trachea) - (Fig. 10). Two pathways cross in the pharynx - the respiratory and the digestive. The role of the “arrows” in this crossing is played by the soft palate and epiglottis (Fig. 15).

Soft sky serves as a posterior continuation of the hard palate; it is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called velum. When the palatine muscles relax, the palatine curtain hangs down freely, and when they contract (which is observed during the act of swallowing), it rises upward and backward, blocking the entrance to the nasopharynx. In the middle of the velum palatine there is an elongated process - tongue

Epiglottis consists of cartilage tissue shaped like a tongue or petal. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from the entry of food and saliva (Fig. 15).

In children, the larynx is small and grows unevenly at different periods. Its noticeable growth occurs at the age of 5-7 years, and then during puberty: in girls at 12-13 years old, in boys at 13-15 years old. At this time, the size of the larynx in girls smoothly increases by one third, and in boys this process is “explosive” in nature: the Adam’s apple begins to quickly appear, and the significantly (2/3) increased vocal folds lead to a “change of voice” - a change in its timbre .

Rice. 15. Position of the soft palate and epiglottis

During breathing (A) and swallowing (B)

1 – soft palate; 2 – epiglottis; 3 – trachea; 4 – esophagus

– muscles that stretch the vocal cords – thyroid-arytenoid(or voice)And cricothyroid muscles. The former, together with the mucous membrane covering them, form true vocal cords(folds), between which there is glottis. When the thyroarytenoid muscle contracts, the vocal cords stretch and, increasing in diameter, somewhat narrow the glottis. When the cricothyroid muscle contracts, due to the inclination of the thyroid cartilage, tension on the vocal cords also occurs;

– to a muscle group, widening the glottis , only one muscle enters - posterior cricoarytenoid, called simply for short posterior muscle of the larynx. During its contraction, it rotates the arytenoid cartilages around a vertical axis, as a result of which the vocal processes of these cartilages, together with the posterior ends of the true vocal cords attached to them, diverge to the sides and open the glottis (Fig. 17);

– to a muscle group, narrowing the glottis , includes: lateral cricoarytenoid a muscle that serves as an antagonist to the posterior muscle, and transverse arytenoid, or simply transverse muscle, being the only unpaired muscle of the larynx. During its contraction, it brings the arytenoid cartilages closer together, thereby contributing to the closure of the glottis. The action of this muscle is complemented by the right and left oblique arytenoid muscles, crossing each other.

The larynx is innervated by the sensory and motor branches of the vagus nerve.

Articulation department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are mobile, the rest are fixed (Fig. 18).

The main organ of articulation is language. The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called root of the tongue. The movable part of the tongue is divided into the tip, the leading edge (blade), the lateral edges and the back. The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles (Fig. 19), the variety of their attachment points, provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of tension of the tongue within a wide range. This not only plays a big role in the process of pronunciation of speech sounds, since the tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except labials), but also ensures the processes of chewing and swallowing.

The muscles of the tongue (Fig. 19) are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group begin from the bony skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. This group of muscles ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole. The muscles of the other group are attached at both ends to various parts of the mucous membrane and, when contracted, change the shape and position of individual parts of the tongue. All muscles of the tongue are paired.

The first group of muscles of the tongue includes:

1) genioglossus muscle– pushes the tongue forward (sticking the tongue out of the mouth);

2)hypoglossal– sets the tongue down;

3)styloglossus muscle - being an antagonist of the first (genioglossus), it retracts the tongue into the oral cavity.

The second group of muscles of the tongue includes:

1) superior longitudinal muscle - when contracting, it shortens the tongue and bends its tip upward;

2) inferior longitudinal muscle - contracting, the tongue hunches and bends its tip downwards;

3) transverse muscle of the tongue - reduces the transverse size of the tongue (narrows it and sharpens it).

The tongue receives motor innervation from the hypoglossal nerve (XII pair of cranial nerves), sensory innervation from the trigeminal nerve, and gustatory innervation from the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX pair).

The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold along the midline - the so-called frenulum of the tongue. In some cases, the frenulum, being insufficiently elastic or too short, limits the movement of the tongue, making it difficult to articulate.

An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth.

The formation of speech sounds also largely depends on the articulation of the lips, provided by part of the facial muscle apparatus (Fig. 20).

Except orbicularis oris muscle, which is located in the thickness of the lips and, when contracted, presses the lips together, there are numerous muscles around the mouth opening that provide various movements of the lips: the muscle, levator labii superioris, zygomatic minor muscle, large zygomatic muscle, santorini muscle of laughter etc. The system of muscles that change the shape of the oral opening should also include the group of masticatory muscles. For example, chewable And temporal muscles lift the lowered lower jaw; pterygoid the muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward, and when they contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed) and, partly, due to contraction of the neck muscles.

The muscles of the lips and cheeks are innervated by the facial nerve, and the muscles of mastication receive innervation from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve.

Sounded speech is the result of the sequential interaction of four articulatory processes:

1) the formation of an air stream, which is formed at the moment when air is forcefully pushed out of the lungs;

2) the process of phonation (sound), when the air flow begins to vibrate as it passes through the vocal cords;

3) the process of articulation itself, when vibration in a stream of air takes on a special form thanks to resonators formed in the mouth
and nasal cavities with organs of articulation;

4) propagation of an air wave of a special shape into the environment.

Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase, while during the exhalation process the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent. It is clear that for a longer exhalation a larger supply of air is needed. Therefore, at the moment of speaking, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (about 3 times). Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper, exhalation is much (5-8 times) longer than inhalation (while outside speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same) and is carried out with the active participation of the expiratory muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles) . This ensures its greatest duration and depth and, in addition, increases the pressure of the air stream, without which sonorous speech is impossible. In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much (8-10 per minute) as during normal (without speech) breathing (16-20 per minute).

Features of speech breathing are more clearly presented in Table. 1.

Table 1

Features of speech breathing

During normal breathing, the glottis is wide open and has the shape of an isosceles triangle. The inhaled and exhaled air silently passes through the wide glottis. During phonation (sound production), the vocal folds are in a closed state (Fig. 21). A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e., middle position, so that, as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, they again move apart, etc. Closures and openings continue until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse, and not longitudinal, direction, that is, the vocal folds move inward and outward, and not up and down.

However, the larynx alone cannot create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in the so-called resonators, forming the volume and clarity of speech sounds. The resonators are located in extension pipe – section of the respiratory-digestive tract located above the larynx: pharynx, oral and nasal cavities. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe create resonance phenomena, as a result of which some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech spectrum of sounds arises, differing in strength, pitch and timbre.

The power of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (span) of vibrations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e., the force of exhalation, as well as the influence of the resonator cavities of the extension pipe, which are sound amplifiers.

The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, influence the individual “color” of the voice, or timbre. It is thanks to timbre that we distinguish people by their voices.

Height voice depends on the vibration frequency of the vocal folds, and it, in turn, depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the voice sound. In addition, the pitch of the voice depends on the pressure of the air stream on the vocal folds and the degree of their tension.

The peculiarity of the extension pipe of the human vocal apparatus, in comparison, for example, with the extension pipe of a wind musical instrument - an organ, is that it not only strengthens the voice and gives it an individual coloring (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.

The Russian language has a fairly rich system of phonetic means - 42 independent sound types with 6 vowels, as well as 36 sonorant and noisy, voiced and voiceless consonants. When pronouncing Russian sounds, the larynx and laryngeal part of the pharynx are practically not involved (as is the case in Caucasian languages), dentolabial combinations (typical of the English language), as well as diphthong sounds, double vowels, the middle between A And e(typical for Baltic languages). However, if we consider that there are languages ​​with a very laconic system of speech sounds (up to 15 in the languages ​​of some African peoples), then the Russian phonetic system can be considered quite rich.

When speech sounds are formed, the extension pipe performs the function noise vibrator(function sonic vibrator perform the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx). The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and teeth, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures broken by a stream of air between these organs, which are created by various movements of the tongue and lips. With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants, i.e. formed without the participation of the voice, and with the simultaneous activation of a tone vibrator (oscillations of the vocal folds) are formed voiced(produced by noise and accompanied by voice), and sonorous(formed with the help of the voice, with weakly expressed noise - m, n, l, r) consonants.

Most non-sonorant consonants are distributed in “voiced-voiceless” pairs: p–b, f–v, w–f etc. Unpaired deaf people are X, ts, h, sch, and unpaired voiced ones – j(yot).

The activity of the active organs of pronunciation (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) is called articulation and provides education itself speech sounds. The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language, and each vowel sound corresponds to a special location of the active organs of pronunciation - the tongue, lips, soft palate. For example, when pronouncing a sound A the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and elongates. When pronouncing the same sound And, on the contrary, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands. As a result, the same sound, originating in the larynx, acquires a color characteristic of a particular vowel sound in the supernatant, mainly in the oral cavity. In this case, the movements of the tongue back and forth, raising it more or less to a certain part of the palate, change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form the opening of the resonator and lengthen the resonating cavity.

If a person has correct pronunciation, then the nasal resonator is involved only in pronouncing sounds m And n and their soft variants. When pronouncing other sounds, the velum, formed by the soft palate and a small uvula, closes the entrance to the nasal cavity and it does not participate in sound formation.

So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form the voice, the third is a resonator, which gives the sound strength and color and, thus, forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus. But in order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These teams are called articulatory program which is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems. Speech (articulatory) movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.

As already indicated, sound pronunciation in humans is associated with the function of breathing, voice formation in the larynx and extension tube, and the correct reproduction of the articulatory program of the pronunciation organs. Our task is to consider those pathological processes that are of interest to teachers, that is, mainly, persistent changes in the structure and functions of the speech organs, leading to disturbances in voice and speech formation. At the same time, we are not inclined to touch upon the consideration of the pathology of the central mechanisms of speech, since this is the subject and task of the neuropathology course.

3.3.1. Main types of speech disorders. Speech disorders in which, due to damage to the cortical parts of the speech analyzer, the ability to use words to express thoughts and communicate with other people is partially or completely lost are called alalia.

One of the forms of alalia is aphasia, When organic Speech disorders of cortical origin are observed against the background of preserved function of the articulatory apparatus, vision and hearing (the patient could speak, but does not “know how”).

Aphasia of central cortical origin, but functional character (of hysterical origin, or against the background of severe emotional stress), is called logoneurosis and appears in the form anarthria (loss of speech), or dysarthria (speech disorders caused by articulation disorders, difficulties in pronouncing speech sounds due to paresis, spasm and other disorders of the speech muscles). Dysarthria can also be observed when brain damage is localized in the area of ​​structures that provide the speech motor mechanism of speech.

Dislalia– a type of dysarthric disorder of sound pronunciation. Violations of sound pronunciation in dyslalia are associated with an anomaly in the structure of the articulatory apparatus, or with features of speech education. In this regard, a distinction is made between mechanical and functional dyslalia. Mechanical (organic) dyslalia is associated with a violation of the structure of the articulatory apparatus: malocclusion, incorrect structure of teeth, etc. Functional dyslalia is associated with improper speech communication in the family.

Rhinolalia– a violation of sound pronunciation and voice timbre associated with a specific congenital defect in the structure of the articulatory apparatus (cleft palate, etc.).

Stuttering (logoneurosis)– disturbance of fluency of speech caused by muscle spasms of the speech apparatus.

Voice disorders– is the absence or disorder of voice formation (phonation) due to pathological changes in the vocal apparatus. There are partial voice disorders - dysphonia and complete absence - aphonia .

Partial disorder of the processes of reading and writing is designated by the terms dyslexia And dysgraphia . The reasons are associated with disruption of the interaction of various analyzing systems of the cerebral cortex.

3.3.2. Pathology of the respiratory part of the speech apparatus is mainly associated with congenital and acquired changes in the airways, especially in those parts that are associated with speech function (larynx, organs of the supernatant). However, one cannot fail to note the “respiratory” trace in the pathology of sound reproduction in persons with severe degrees of respiratory failure, due to a variety of reasons (asthmatic status, lung injuries, etc.), when the possibilities of sound articulation are fully preserved.

Congenital upper respiratory tract abnormalities are relatively rare and can manifest as partial or complete atresia (closure) of the nasal passages or choanae (openings connecting the nasal cavity with the pharyngeal cavity), which makes it difficult for air to pass into the nasal cavity. Anomalies that make nasal breathing difficult may include: deviated nasal septum, consequences of traumatic damage to the nasal bones, foreign bodies (usually in children and often undiagnosed for a long time), acute rhinitis (runny nose), accompanied by nasal congestion, chronic rhinitis, which has A common outcome is atrophic or hypertrophic changes in the nasal mucosa and lymphoid tissue (hypertrophy of adenoids, palatine tonsils), fibroma (polyps) of the nose, paralysis of the soft palate, etc. However, these anomalies and forms of pathology cannot affect the function of voice formation, since speech breathing is carried out through the mouth , but can disrupt the resonator function of the nose (nasal sound, slurred speech, impaired voice timbre, etc.).

3.3.3. Pathology of the voice-forming apparatus. Voice formation is a priority function of the larynx. Anomalies in the development of the larynx are most often associated with deviations in the structure of the epiglottis, but defects of the epiglottis usually do not have a particular effect on voice formation.

Very rarely, a congenital laryngeal diaphragm is observed - a thin membrane between the true vocal cords, or under them, leaving a small gap through which respiratory air passes. Accordingly, first of all, more or less difficulty breathing, hoarseness and other voice defects are noted.

Acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx ( acute laryngitis) develops most often as part of a diffuse lesion of the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract with influenza or seasonal catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. The occurrence of an inflammatory process in the larynx is promoted by general and local cooling, and risk factors are smoking and vocal strain. The disease manifests itself in a feeling of dryness, scratching in the throat, then a dry cough is added, the voice becomes hoarse, and sometimes disappears ( aphonia).

In children, acute laryngitis is often accompanied by "false croup"– significant swelling of the mucous membrane of the larynx above the true vocal cords, which leads to a narrowing of the respiratory gap. The child develops a “barking” cough, and often difficulty breathing in the form of attacks of suffocation. These attacks, as a rule, occur suddenly and at night, last 1-2 hours, after which breathing in most cases restores itself and the child immediately feels relief. Sometimes urgent medical intervention is required.

The main danger of false croup is not to miss true diphtheria croup, with which it has very similar symptoms.

Frequent acute laryngitis, prolonged vocal strain lead to the gradual development chronic laryngitis, the main symptom of which is dysphonia (change in voice) - from a slight disturbance in the sonority of the voice to severe hoarseness and even aphonia. Associated symptoms include a tickling sensation, scratching in the throat and a dry cough.

With excessive and prolonged voice tension, so-called nodules– limited swellings located symmetrically on the free edge of the true vocal cords. This prevents them from completely closing during phonation. A gap forms between the ligaments, through which air leaks, causing the voice to become hoarse. Nodules of the vocal cords are sometimes observed in children who scream a lot and loudly, in singers with unproduced voices, and in choristers who force their voices excessively when singing. The predisposing cause is frequent acute laryngitis.

Fibroma(polyp) of the larynx is a round tumor with a smooth surface, usually formed on one of the true vocal cords, along its free edge. Its size can range from a millet grain to a pea. By preventing the ligaments from tightly closing, fibroids cause hoarseness. Treatment is surgical only.

Laryngeal papilloma- a benign tumor that looks like tuberous, grape-shaped growths, similar to cauliflower, located on the true or false vocal cords. Most common in children aged 2 to 8 years, it grows slowly, leading to progressive hoarseness. In advanced cases, complete loss of voice (aphonia) may occur and difficulty breathing may develop. Treatment is surgical.

Laryngeal cancer more common in people

Wernicke's area (1). Broca's area (2) – responsible for speech activity.

Broca's area- this is the motor center of speech, the zone of speech motor organs - speech motor skills, responsible for speech reproduction.

Manages muscles of the face, tongue, pharynx, jaws and is located in the inferior frontal lobe of the brain, in the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus near the facial representation of the motor cortex. When it is damaged, articulation is impaired.

Wernicke Speech Center, responsible for understanding speech , - auditory speech center (secondary auditory field).

This is a large area in the superior posterior temporal lobe, in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus close (posterior) to the primary auditory cortex. Its main function is converting auditory signals into neural codes of words that activate corresponding images or concepts

Arc-shaped beam connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area, forming a system responsible for speech

Damage to Wernicke's center causes sensory aphasia when the patient has difficulty perceiving heard speech or written text, but is able to speak.

Aphasia- gr. aphasia - complete or partial speech impairment. The diagnosis of aphasia is made with central violations of any aspects of speech - naming objects, searching for words, grammatical structure of speech, understanding speech.

That. the entire speech apparatus, from the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, can be divided into three parts:

1) Everything below the larynx– lower floor of the speech apparatus

Comprises:

two lungs,

two bronchi,

aperture

Forces a stream of exhaled air by tensing the muscles of the diaphragm.

It is impossible to form speech sounds in the lower level of the speech apparatus.

2) Larynx– middle floor of the speech apparatus.

Consists of two large cartilage. The protrusion of one of them (the thyroid cartilage) is colloquially called the “Adam’s apple” or “Adam’s apple”). These cartilages form the skeleton of the larynx, inside which muscular films in the form of curtain. The central edges of the curtain are made of muscle film - vocal cords.

2. exhale and when pronouncing voiceless consonants and voiceless vowels ( stomp, elbow)

3. a person is out of breath and breathing heavily or a guttural rustling sound, aspiration

4. a click in the larynx, or, otherwise, a laryngeal explosion

6. vibration of tense ligaments - very high sounds - this is falsetto

7. vibration of tense ligaments - formation of voice

3) Everything above the larynx– upper floor of the speech apparatus – resonator, the source of speech sounds.

Divided into two cavities: oral And nasal

pharyngeal cavity(pharynx), where the cartilage of the epiglottis is located

Nasal cavity– a resonator that does not change in volume and shape, giving the sound a nasal (nasal) timbre

Oral cavity can change its shape and volume due to the presence of movable organs: lips, tongue, small uvula, soft palate and, in some cases, the epiglottis.

Sky separates the oral and nasal cavities: the anterior part - solid sky; rear end - soft sky(velum palatine), ending small tongue.

Language- the most mobile of the organs of the speech apparatus. Comprises: root (the base by which the tongue is attached to the hyoid bone); backrests (back, middle and front); we can especially highlight tip language.

Teeth

Lips- the lower one is more mobile.

Alveoli- tubercles located behind the upper teeth.

Upper and lower jaw(bottom is movable)

Cerebral cortex the human brain contains three that are essential for speech function sensory fields: visual(in the area of ​​the calcarine groove on the medial surface of the occipital lobes of the right and left sides, area 17 according to Brodmann); auditory(in the area of ​​Heschl’s transverse gyri; it forms part of the first temporal gyrus of each temporal lobe and penetrates deeply into the lateral Sylvian fissure, Brodmann’s area 41); somato-sensory(in the posterior central gyrus of each side, areas 1-3 according to Brodmann). IN front central gyrus of the right and left hemispheres (fields 4 and 6 according to Brodmann) primary motor field located, which controls the muscles of the face, limbs and torso. It is this that determines voluntary motor activity a person, an essential part of which is speech and writing.

In addition to primary, there are also secondary sensory and motor fields located in close proximity to the primary zones: the center for the perception of oral speech - Wernicke Center(middle third of the superior temporal gyrus – area 22); written speech analyzer center at the border of the temporal, occipital and parietal lobes (field 39); motor speech center Broca's center(posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus - field 44); motor center of written speech (middle section of the inferior frontal gyrus - field 6). The most important integrative part of the brain - frontal lobe I, regulating speech software. Interaction of the listed cortical zones carried out both at the expense transcortical associative connections, so and corticothalamic and related thalamo-cortical connections.

Three interconnected speech zones, located in the posterior temporal region, the inferior central gyrus and in the additional motor cortex of the left hemisphere, act as unified speech mechanism(see Fig. 8).

Spoken speech perception. After acoustic information ia contained in a word is processed in auditory system and in other "non-auditory" brain formations, for example in the visual cortex, it enters primary auditory cortex. Further processing of the received information carried out in Wernicke's area, located in the temporal region, in close proximity to the primary auditory cortex. Right here provides an understanding of the meaning of the incoming signal - words.

Speech reproduction. For pronouncing the word it is necessary for it to be activated representation in Broca's area located in the third frontal gyrus. Activation of Broca's area provided by a group of fibers called arcuate beam. IN Broca's area information, coming from Wernicke's zone, lead to the emergence of a detailed articulation program. Implementation of this program carried out through activation of the facial projection of the motor cortex, control speech muscles and connected to Broca's area by short fibers.

Perception of written speech. If written language is perceived speech then The primary visual cortex is activated first. After that information about the word read into the angular gyrus, which connects the visual form of a given word With its acoustic analogue in the Wernicke zone. The further path leading to the emergence of a speech reaction is the same as in purely acoustic perception. A similar way of perceiving written speech exists in deaf people.

When various areas of the cortex are damaged speech disorders occur in the left hemisphere and the nerve pathways connecting these areas - aphasia. The forms and manifestations of aphasia are different: this is a violation of the articulation of speech sounds, the inability to construct meaningful speech, it is also the inability to understand spoken language, even if the production of sounds is not impaired.