Ice battle on Lake Peipsi. Progress of the battle, meaning and consequences
Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.
Alexander Nevskiy
The Battle of the Ice is one of the most famous battles in Russian history. The battle took place in early April 1242 on Lake Peipsi, on the one hand, the troops of the Novgorod Republic, led by Alexander Nevsky, took part in it, on the other hand, it was opposed by the troops of the German crusaders, mainly representatives of the Livonian Order. If Nevsky had lost this battle, the history of Russia could have gone a completely different way, but the prince of Novgorod was able to win. Now let's look at this page of Russian history in more detail.
Preparing for battle
To understand the essence of the Battle of the Ice, it is necessary to understand what preceded it and how the opponents approached the battle. So... After the Swedes lost the Battle of the Neva, the German crusaders decided to more carefully prepare for a new campaign. The Teutonic Order also allocated part of its army to help. Back in 1238, Dietrich von Grüningen became the master of the Livonian Order; many historians attribute to him the decisive role in shaping the idea of a campaign against Rus'. The crusaders were further motivated by Pope Gregory IX, who in 1237 declared a crusade against Finland, and in 1239 called on the princes of Rus' to respect the border orders.
At this point, the Novgorodians already had successful experience of war with the Germans. In 1234, Alexander's father Yaroslav defeated them in the battle on the Omovzha River. Alexander Nevsky, knowing the plans of the crusaders, began to build a line of fortifications along the southwestern border in 1239, but the Swedes made minor adjustments to his plans by attacking from the northwest. After their defeat, Nevsky continued to strengthen the borders, and also married the daughter of the Prince of Polotsk, thereby enlisting his support in case of a future war.
At the end of 1240, the Germans began a campaign against the lands of Rus'. In the same year they took Izborsk, and in 1241 they besieged Pskov. At the beginning of March 1242, Alexander helped the residents of Pskov liberate their principality and drove the Germans northwest of the city, to the region of Lake Peipus. It was there that the decisive battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of the Ice.
The course of the battle briefly
The first clashes of the ice battle began in early April 1242 on the northern shore of Lake Peipsi. The crusaders were led by a famous commander Andreas von Felfen, who was twice as old as the Novgorod prince. Nevsky's army numbered 15-17 thousand soldiers, while the Germans had about 10 thousand. However, according to chroniclers, both in Rus' and abroad, the German troops were much better armed. But as shown further development events, this played a cruel joke on the crusaders.
The Battle of the Ice took place on April 5, 1242. German troops, mastering the “pigs” attack technique, that is, a strict and disciplined formation, main blow sent to the center of the enemy. However, Alexander first attacked the enemy army with the help of archers, and then ordered a strike on the flanks of the crusaders. As a result, the Germans were forced forward onto the ice of Lake Peipsi. The winter at that time was long and cold, so at the time of April the ice (very fragile) remained on the reservoir. After the Germans realized that they were retreating onto the ice, it was already too late: the ice began to crack under the pressure of the heavy German armor. That is why historians called the battle the “Battle of the Ice.” As a result, some of the soldiers drowned, others were killed in battle, but most still managed to escape. After this, Alexander's troops finally drove the crusaders out of the territory of the Pskov principality.
The exact location of the battle has not yet been established, this is due to the fact that Lake Peipsi has very variable hydrography. In 1958-1959, the first archaeological expedition was organized, but no traces of the battle were found.
Historical reference
Result and historical significance of the battle
The first result of the battle was that the Livonian and Teutonic orders signed a truce with Alexander and renounced their claims to Rus'. Alexander himself became the de facto ruler of Northern Rus'. After his death, in 1268, the Livonian Order violated the truce: the Battle of Rakovsk took place. But this time, too, the Russian troops achieved victory.
After the victory in the “Battle on the Ice,” the Novgorod Republic, led by Nevsky, was able to move from defensive tasks to the conquest of new territories. Alexander undertook several successful campaigns against the Lithuanians.
As for the historical significance of the Battle of Lake Peipus, then the main role Alexander is that he managed to stop the advance of a powerful army of crusaders on Russian lands. The famous historian L. Gumelev argues that the fact of conquest by the crusaders would have meant the end for the very existence of Rus', and therefore the end of the future Russia.
Some historians criticize Nevsky for his truce with the Mongols, and that he did not help defend Rus' from them. In this discussion, most historians are still on the side of Nevsky, because in the situation in which he found himself, it was necessary either to negotiate with the khan, or to fight with two at once powerful enemies. And as a competent politician and commander, Nevsky made a wise decision.
The exact date of the Battle of the Ice
The battle took place on April 5, old style. In the 20th century, the difference between the styles was 13 days, which is why the holiday was assigned to April 18th. However, from the point of view of historical justice, it is worth recognizing that in the 13th century (when the battle took place) the difference was 7 days. Based on this logic, the Battle of the Ice took place on April 12, according to the new style. Nevertheless, today April 18 is a public holiday in Russian Federation, Military Glory Day. It is on this day that the Battle of the Ice and its significance in the history of Russia are remembered.
Participants in the battle after
Having achieved victory, the Novgorod Republic begins its rapid development. However, in the 16th century there was a decline in both the Livonian Order and Novgorod. Both of these events are associated with the ruler of Moscow, Ivan the Terrible. He deprived Novgorod of the privileges of the Republic, subordinating these lands to a single state. After the Livonian Order lost its strength and influence in Eastern Europe, Grozny declared war on Lithuania to strengthen his own influence and expand the territories of his state.
An alternative view of the Battle of Lake Peipsi
Due to the fact that during the archaeological expedition of 1958-1959 no traces and exact location of the battle were found, and also taking into account the fact that the chronicles of the 13th century contain very little information about the battle, two alternative views on the Battle of the Ice of 1242 were formed, which briefly discussed below:
- According to the first glance, there was no battle at all. This is an invention of historians of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, in particular Solovyov, Karamzin and Kostomarov. According to historians who share this point of view, the need to create this battle was caused by the fact that it was necessary to justify Nevsky’s cooperation with the Mongols, as well as to show the strength of Rus' in relation to Catholic Europe. Basically, a small number of historians adhere to this theory, since it is very difficult to deny the very fact of the existence of the battle, because the battle on Lake Peipsi is described in some chronicles of the late 13th century, as well as in the chronicles of the Germans.
- Second alternative theory: The Battle of the Ice is briefly described in the chronicles, which means it is a greatly exaggerated event. Historians who adhere to this point of view say that there were much fewer participants in the massacre, and the consequences for the Germans were less dramatic.
If the first theory is professional Russian historians deny how historical fact, as for the second version, they have one weighty argument: even if the scale of the battle is exaggerated, this should not reduce the role of the victory over the Germans in the history of Russia. By the way, in 2012-2013 archaeological expeditions were carried out, as well as studies of the bottom of Lake Peipsi. Archaeologists have found several new probable sites of the Battle of the Ice, in addition, a study of the bottom showed the presence of a sharp decrease in depth near Raven Island, which suggests the existence of the legendary “Raven Stone”, that is, the approximate location of the battle, named in the chronicle of 1463.
The Battle of the Ice in the country's culture
1938 has great importance in the history of lighting historical events V modern culture. This year, the famous Russian writer Konstantin Simonov wrote the poem “Battle of the Ice,” and director Sergei Eisenstein shot the film “Alexander Nevsky,” in which he highlighted the two main battles of the Novgorod ruler: on the Neva River and Lake Peipus. The image of Nevsky was of particular importance during the Great Patriotic War. Patriotic War. Poets, artists, and directors turned to him to show the citizens of the Soviet Union an example of a successful war with the Germans and thereby raise the morale of the army.
In 1993, a monument was erected on Mount Sokolikha near Pskov. A year earlier, in the village of Kobylye, a settlement (as close as possible to the battle site) locality) erected a monument to Nevsky. In 2012, a museum of the Battle of the Ice of 1242 was opened in the village of Samolva, Pskov region.
As we see, even Short story The Battle of the Ice is not only the battle of April 5, 1242 between the Novgorodians and the Germans. This is a very important event in the history of Russia, since thanks to the talent of Alexander Nevsky, Rus' was saved from conquest by the crusaders.
Rus' in the 13th century and the arrival of the Germans
In 1240, Novgorod was attacked by the Swedes, by the way, allies of the Livonians, future participants in the Battle of the Ice. Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich, who at that time was only 20 years old, defeats the Swedes on Lake Neva, for which he received the nickname “Nevsky”. In the same year, the Mongols burned Kyiv, that is, most of Rus' was occupied with the war with the Mongols, Nevsky and its Novgorod Republic were left alone with strong enemies. The Swedes were defeated, but a stronger and more powerful opponent awaited Alexander ahead: the German crusaders. In the 12th century, the Pope created the Order of the Swordsmen and sent them to the Baltic Sea coast, where they received from him the right to own all the conquered lands. These events went down in history as the Northern Crusade. Since most of the members of the Order of the Sword were immigrants from Germany, this order was therefore called German. At the beginning of the 13th century, the order split into several military organizations, the main of which were the Teutonic and Livonian orders. In 1237, the Livonians recognized their dependence on the Teutonic Order, but had the right to choose their master. It was the Livonian Order that was the closest neighbors of the Novgorod Republic.
The Battle of the Ice occurred on April 5, 1242. The battle brought together the army of the Livonian Order and the army of North-Eastern Rus' - the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities.
The army of the Livonian Order was headed by the commander - the head of the administrative unit of the Order - Riga, Andreas von Velven, the former and future Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia (from 1240 to 1241 and from 1248 to 1253).
At the head of the Russian army was Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky. Despite his youth, he was 21 years old at the time, he had already become famous as a successful commander and brave warrior. Two years earlier, in 1240, he defeated a Swedish army on the Neva River, for which he received his nickname.
This battle got its name, “Battle of the Ice,” from the location of this event – the frozen Lake Peipsi. The ice at the beginning of April was strong enough to support a horse rider, so the two armies met on it.
Causes of the Battle of the Ice.
The Battle of Lake Peipus is one of the events in the history of territorial rivalry between Novgorod and its western neighbors. The subject of dispute long before the events of 1242 were Karelia, the lands near Lake Ladoga and the Izhora and Neva rivers. Novgorod sought to extend its control to these lands not only to increase the territory of influence, but also to provide itself with access to the Baltic Sea. Access to the sea would greatly simplify trade with its western neighbors for Novgorod. Namely, trade was the main source of the city’s prosperity.Novgorod's rivals had their own reasons to dispute these lands. And the rivals were all the same western neighbors, with whom the Novgorodians “both fought and traded” - Sweden, Denmark, the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. All of them were united by the desire to expand the territory of their influence and take control of the trade route on which Novgorod was located. Another reason to gain a foothold in the lands disputed with Novgorod was the need to secure their borders from raids by the tribes of Karelians, Finns, Chuds, etc.
New castles and strongholds in new lands were to become outposts in the fight against restless neighbors.
And there was another, very important reason for the zeal to the east - ideological. The 13th century for Europe is the time of the Crusades. Interests of the Roman catholic church in this region coincided with the interests of the Swedish and German feudal lords - expanding the sphere of influence, obtaining new subjects. The conductors of the policy of the Catholic Church were the Livonian and Teutonic Orders of Knighthood. In fact, all campaigns against Novgorod are the Crusades.
On the eve of the battle.
What were Novgorod's rivals like on the eve of the Battle of the Ice?Sweden. Due to the defeat by Alexander Yaroslavovich in 1240 on the Neva River, Sweden temporarily dropped out of the dispute over new territories. In addition, at this time, a real outbreak flared up in Sweden itself. Civil War for the royal throne, so the Swedes had no time for new campaigns to the east.
Denmark. At this time, the active king Valdemar II ruled in Denmark. The time of his reign was marked by an active foreign policy and the annexation of new lands. So, in 1217 he began expansion into Estland and in the same year founded the Revel fortress, now Tallinn. In 1238, he entered into an alliance with the Master of the Teutonic Order Herman Balk on the division of Estonia and joint military campaigns against Rus'.
Warband. The Order of German Crusader Knights strengthened its influence in the Baltic states by merging in 1237 with the Livonian Order. In essence, the Livonian Order was subordinated to the more powerful Teutonic Order. This allowed the Teutons not only to gain a foothold in the Baltic states, but also created the conditions for the spread of their influence to the east. It was the knighthood of the Livonian Order, already as part of the Teutonic Order, that became the driving force behind the events that ended with the Battle of Lake Peipsi.
These events developed in this way. In 1237, Pope Gregory IX announced a Crusade to Finland, that is, including the lands disputed with Novgorod. In July 1240, the Swedes were defeated by the Novgorodians on the Neva River, and already in August of the same year, the Livonian Order, picking up the banner of the Crusade from weakened Swedish hands, began its campaign against Novgorod. This campaign was led by Andreas von Velven, Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia. On the side of the Order, this campaign included the militia from the city of Dorpat (now the city of Tartu), the squad of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, detachments of Estonians and Danish vassals. Initially, the campaign was successful - Izborsk and Pskov were taken.
At the same time (winter of 1240-1241), seemingly paradoxical events took place in Novgorod - the Swedish winner Alexander Nevsky left Novgorod. This was the result of the intrigues of the Novgorod nobility, who rightly feared competition in the management of the Novgorod land from the side, which was rapidly gaining popularity of the prince. Alexander went to his father in Vladimir. He appointed him to reign in Pereslavl-Zalessky.
And the Livonian Order at this time continued to carry the “word of the Lord” - they founded the Koropye fortress, an important stronghold that allowed them to control the trade routes of the Novgorodians. They advanced all the way to Novgorod, raiding its suburbs (Luga and Tesovo). This forced the Novgorodians to think about defense seriously. And they couldn’t come up with anything better than inviting Alexander Nevsky to reign again. He did not take long to persuade himself and, having arrived in Novgorod in 1241, energetically set to work. To begin with, he took Koropje by storm, killing the entire garrison. In March 1242, united with his younger brother Andrei and his Vladimir-Suzdal army, Alexander Nevsky took Pskov. The garrison was killed, and two governors of the Livonian Order, shackled, were sent to Novgorod.
Having lost Pskov, the Livonian Order concentrated its forces in the area of Dorpat (now Tartu). The command of the campaign planned to move between the Pskov and Peipus lakes and move to Novgorod. As was the case with the Swedes in 1240, Alexander attempted to intercept the enemy along his route. To do this, he moved his army to the junction of the lakes, forcing the enemy to go out onto the ice of Lake Peipsi for a decisive battle.
Progress of the Battle of the Ice.
The two armies met early in the morning on the ice of the lake on April 5, 1242. Unlike the battle on the Neva, Alexander gathered a significant army - its number was 15 - 17 thousand. It consisted of:- “lower regiments” - troops of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (squads of the prince and boyars, city militias).
- the Novgorod army consisted of Alexander’s squad, the bishop’s squad, the townsman’s militia and private squads of boyars and rich merchants.
The entire army was subordinated to a single commander - Prince Alexander.
The enemy army numbered 10 - 12 thousand people. Most likely, he did not have a single command; Andreas von Velven, although he led the campaign as a whole, did not personally participate in the Battle of the Ice, entrusting the command of the battle to a council of several commanders.
Adopting their classic wedge formation, the Livonians attacked Russian army. At first they were lucky - they managed to break through the ranks of the Russian regiments. But having been drawn deep into the Russian defense, they got stuck in it. And at that moment Alexander brought reserve regiments and a cavalry ambush regiment into battle. The reserves of the Novgorod prince hit the flanks of the crusaders. The Livonians fought bravely, but their resistance was broken, and they were forced to retreat to avoid encirclement. Russian troops pursued the enemy for seven miles. The victory over the Livonians by their allies was complete.
Results of the Battle of the Ice.
As a result of its unsuccessful campaign against Rus', the Teutonic Order made peace with Novgorod and renounced its territorial claims.The Battle of the Ice is the largest in a series of battles during territorial disputes between northern Russia and its western neighbors. Having won it, Alexander Nevsky secured most of the disputed lands for Novgorod. Yes, the territorial issue was not finally resolved, but over the next few hundred years it boiled down to local border conflicts.
The victory on the ice of Lake Peipsi stopped the Crusade, which had not only territorial but also ideological goals. The question of accepting the Catholic faith and accepting the patronage of the Pope in northern Russia was finally removed.
These two important victories, military and, as a consequence, ideological, were won by the Russians during the most difficult period of history - the invasion of the Mongols. The Old Russian state virtually ceased to exist, morale Eastern Slavs was weakened and against this background, a series of victories of Alexander Nevsky (in 1245 - victory over the Lithuanians in the battle of Toropets) had important not only political, but also moral and ideological significance.
Causes of the Battle of the Ice.
The Battle of Lake Peipus is one of the events in the history of territorial rivalry between Novgorod and its western neighbors. The subject of dispute long before the events of 1242 were Karelia, the lands near Lake Ladoga and the Izhora and Neva rivers. Novgorod sought to extend its control to these lands not only to increase the territory of influence, but also to provide itself with access to the Baltic Sea. Access to the sea would greatly simplify trade with its western neighbors for Novgorod. Namely, trade was the main source of the city’s prosperity.
Novgorod's rivals had their own reasons to dispute these lands. And the rivals were all the same western neighbors, with whom the Novgorodians “both fought and traded” - Sweden, Denmark, the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. All of them were united by the desire to expand the territory of their influence and take control of the trade route on which Novgorod was located. Another reason to gain a foothold in the lands disputed with Novgorod was the need to secure their borders from raids by the tribes of Karelians, Finns, Chuds, etc.
New castles and strongholds in new lands were to become outposts in the fight against restless neighbors.
And there was another, very important reason for the zeal to the east - ideological. The 13th century for Europe is the time of the Crusades. The interests of the Roman Catholic Church in this region coincided with the interests of the Swedish and German feudal lords - expanding the sphere of influence, obtaining new subjects. The conductors of the policy of the Catholic Church were the Livonian and Teutonic Orders of Knighthood. In fact, all campaigns against Novgorod are the Crusades.
Values: As for the historical significance of the Battle of Lake Peipsi, Alexander’s main role was that he was able to stop the advance of a powerful army of crusaders on Russian lands. The famous historian L. Gumelev argues that the fact of conquest by the crusaders would have meant the end for the very existence of Rus', and therefore the end of the future Russia.
Some historians criticize Nevsky for his truce with the Mongols, and that he did not help defend Rus' from them. In this discussion, most historians still side with Nevsky, because in the situation in which he found himself, it was necessary either to negotiate with the khan or to fight two powerful enemies at once. And as a competent politician and commander, Nevsky made a wise decision.
Results: The first result of the battle was that the Livonian and Teutonic orders signed a truce with Alexander and renounced their claims to Rus'. Alexander himself became the de facto ruler of Northern Rus'. After his death, in 1268, the Livonian Order violated the truce: the Battle of Rakovsk took place. But this time, too, the Russian troops achieved victory.
After the victory in the “Battle on the Ice,” the Novgorod Republic, led by Nevsky, was able to move from defensive tasks to the conquest of new territories. Alexander undertook several successful campaigns against the Lithuanians.
Choosing a battle location. The patrols reported to Prince Alexander that a small detachment of the enemy had moved towards Izborsk, and most of the army had turned towards Lake Pskov. Having received this news, Alexander turned his troops east to the shores of Lake Peipsi. The choice was dictated by strategic and tactical calculations. At this position, Alexander Nevsky with his regiments cut off everything for the enemy. possible ways approach to Novgorod, thus ending up in the very center of all possible enemy routes. Probably, the Russian military leader knew how 8 years ago his father, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, defeated the knights on the ice-bound waters of the Embakh River, and knew about the advantages of fighting with heavily armed knights in winter conditions.
Alexander Nevsky decided to give battle to the enemy on Lake Peipus, north of the Uzmen tract, near the island of Voroniy Kamen. Several important sources have reached us about the famous “Battle of the Ice”. From the Russian side - these are the Novgorod Chronicles and the "Life" of Alexander Nevsky, from Western sources - the "Rhymed Chronicle" (author unknown).
Question about numbers. One of the most difficult and controversial issues is the size of enemy armies. Chroniclers on both sides did not provide accurate data. Some historians believed that the number of German troops was 10-12 thousand people, and the Novgorodians - 12-15 thousand people. It is likely that few knights took part in the battle on the ice, and most of the German army were militias from among the Estonians and Livonians.
Preparing the parties for battle. On the morning of April 5, 1242, the crusading knights lined up in battle formation, ironically called by Russian chroniclers the “great pig” or wedge. The tip of the “wedge” was aimed at the Russians. Knights clad in heavy armor stood on the flanks of the military formation, and lightly armed warriors were located inside.
There is no detailed information in the sources about the combat disposition of the Russian army. This was probably a “regimental row” with a guard regiment in front, common in the military practice of Russian princes of that time. The battle formations of the Russian troops were facing the steep bank, and Alexander Nevsky’s squad was hidden in the forest behind one of the flanks. The Germans were forced to advance along open ice, not knowing the exact location and number of Russian troops.
Progress of the battle. Despite the meager coverage of the course of the famous battle in the sources, the course of the battle is schematically clear. Exposing their long spears, the knights attacked the “brow”, i.e. center of the Russian army. Showered with a hail of arrows, the “wedge” crashed into the location of the guard regiment. The author of the “Rhymed Chronicle” wrote: “The banners of the brothers penetrated the ranks of the riflemen, swords were heard ringing, helmets were seen being cut, and the dead were falling on both sides.” The Russian chronicler also wrote about the Germans’ breakthrough of the guard regiment: “The Germans fought their way like pigs through the regiments.”
This first success of the crusaders was apparently foreseen by the Russian commander, as well as the difficulties encountered after that, insurmountable for the enemy. This is how one of the best Russian military historians wrote about this stage of the battle: “...Having stumbled upon the steep shore of the lake, the sedentary knights clad in armor could not develop their success. On the contrary, the knightly cavalry crowded together, because the rear ranks of the knights pushed the front who had nowhere to turn around for battle."
Russian troops did not allow the Germans to develop their success on the flanks, and the German wedge found itself firmly squeezed into pincers, losing the harmony of its ranks and freedom of maneuver, which turned out to be disastrous for the crusaders. At the most unexpected moment for the enemy, Alexander ordered the ambush regiment to attack and encircle the Germans. “And that slaughter was great and evil for the Germans and the people,” the chronicler reported.
Russian militias and warriors armed with special hooks pulled the knights off their horses, after which the heavily armed “God's nobles” became completely helpless. Under the weight of the crowded knights, the melted ice began to crack and crack in some places. Only part of the crusader army managed to escape from the encirclement, trying to escape. Some of the knights drowned. At the end of the “Battle of the Ice,” the Russian regiments pursued the adversary retreating across the ice of Lake Peipus “seven miles to the Sokolitsky shore.” The defeat of the Germans was crowned by an agreement between the order and Novgorod, according to which the crusaders abandoned all captured Russian lands and returned prisoners; for their part, the Pskovites also released captured Germans.
The meaning of the battle, its unique result. The defeat of the Swedish and German knights is a bright page in the military history of Russia. In the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice, Russian troops under the command of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky, performing an essentially defensive task, were distinguished by decisive and consistent offensive actions. Each subsequent campaign of Alexander Nevsky's regiments had its own tactical task, but the commander himself did not lose sight of the overall strategy. So, in the battles of 1241-1242. The Russian military leader launched a series of successive attacks on the enemy before the decisive battle took place.
The Novgorod troops made excellent use of the surprise factor in all battles with the Swedes and Germans. An unexpected attack destroyed the Swedish knights who had landed at the mouth of the Neva, with a swift and unexpected blow the Germans were driven out of Pskov, and then from Koporye, and finally, a quick and sudden attack by an ambush regiment in the Battle of the Ice, which led to complete confusion of the enemy's battle ranks. The battle formations and tactics of the Russian troops turned out to be more flexible than the notorious wedge formation of the order’s troops. Alexander Nevsky, using the terrain, managed to deprive the enemy of space and freedom of maneuver, encircle and destroy.
The battle on Lake Peipus is also unusual in that for the first time in medieval military practice, heavy cavalry was defeated by foot troops. According to the fair remark of a historian of military art, “the tactical encirclement of the German knightly army by the Russian army, i.e. the use of one of the complex and decisive forms of military art, is the only case of the entire feudal period of war. Only the Russian army under the command of a talented commander could carry out a tactical encirclement a strong, well-armed enemy."
The victory over the German knights was extremely important in military and political terms. Was on for a long time the German onslaught on Eastern Europe. Novgorod the Great retained the ability to maintain economic and cultural ties with European countries, defended the possibility of access to the Baltic Sea, and protected Russian lands in the North-Western region. The defeat of the crusaders pushed other peoples to resist crusader aggression. This is how a famous historian assessed the historical significance of the Battle of the Ice Ancient Rus' M.N. Tikhomirov: “In the history of the fight against German conquerors, the Battle of the Ice is the greatest date. This battle can only be compared with the Grunwald defeat of the Teutonic knights in 1410. The fight against the Germans continued further, but the Germans were never able to cause any significant harm to the Russian lands , and Pskov remained a formidable stronghold, against which all subsequent German attacks were broken." Despite the fact that we see the author’s well-known exaggeration of the significance of the victory on Lake Peipus, we can agree with him.
Another important consequence of the Battle of the Ice should be assessed within the framework general position Rus' in the 40s. XIII century In the event of the defeat of Novgorod, a real threat would have been created of the seizure of the northwestern Russian lands by the troops of the order, and given that Rus' had already been conquered by the Tatars, it would probably have been twice as difficult for the Russian people to get rid of double oppression.
With all the severity of Tatar oppression, there was one circumstance that ultimately turned out to be in favor of Rus'. The Mongol-Tatars who conquered Rus' in the 13th century. remained pagans, respectful and wary of other people's faith and not encroaching on it. The Teutonic army, supervised personally by the Pope, tried by all means to introduce Catholicism in the conquered territories. Destruction or at least detonation Orthodox faith for the scattered Russian lands that had lost their unity would mean the loss of cultural identity and the loss of all hope of restoring political independence. It was Orthodoxy in the era of Tatarism and political fragmentation, when the population of numerous lands and principalities of Rus' almost lost their sense of unity, that was the basis for the revival of national identity.
Read also other topics Part IX "Rus between East and West: battles of the 13th and 15th centuries." section "Rus and Slavic countries in the Middle Ages":
- 39. “Who is the essence and the split-off”: Tatar-Mongols by the beginning of the 13th century.
- 41. Genghis Khan and the “Muslim front”: campaigns, sieges, conquests
- 42. Rus' and the Polovtsians on the eve of Kalka
- Polovtsy. Military-political organization and social structure of the Polovtsian hordes
- Prince Mstislav Udaloy. Princely Congress in Kyiv - the decision to help the Polovtsians
- 44. Crusaders in the Eastern Baltic
The Russian army is rightfully considered one of the strongest and most combat-ready in history. Evidence of this is the many brilliant victories won by Russian soldiers in battles with opponents that were superior to them.
1. Defeat of the Khazar Kaganate (965)
The fall of Khazaria was the inevitable result of the weakening of its political and military power in the confrontation with Russia. However, by the time of the eastern campaign of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, the Khazar Khaganate was still a strong rival.
The Russian chronicler reports:
“In the summer of 6473 (965) Svyatoslav went against the Khazars. Having heard it, the Khazars came out to meet him with their prince Kagan and agreed to fight, and in the battle Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars.”
According to one version, Svyatoslav first took the capital of the Kaganate Itil, and then captured Sarkel, which predetermined the final victory.
2. Battle of the Neva (1240)
In the summer of 1240, the Swedes and their allies landed at the place where Izhora flows into the Neva. A small detachment of the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich advanced towards them. According to legend, the prince inspired the squad with a phrase that later became “winged”: “Brothers! God is not in power, but in truth!”
Historians believe that in the balance of forces the advantage was on the side of the Swedes - 5 thousand versus 1.4 thousand. However, unable to withstand the powerful and selfless onslaught of the Russian army, the Swedes fled. For his victory and courage, Alexander received the nickname “Nevsky”.
3. Battle of the Ice (1242)
The second famous victory of Alexander Nevsky was won over the knights of the Livonian Order in April 1242 on the ice of Lake Peipsi. This time, together with the Novgorodians, Vladimir squads also took part in the battle.
The outcome of the battle was determined by the competent tactics of the Russian troops. They surrounded the German formations from the flanks and forced them to retreat. Historians estimate the number of sides at 15-17 thousand Russians and 10-12 thousand Livonians with mercenaries. In this battle, the knights lost 400 killed and 50 captured.
4. Battle of Kulikovo (1380)
The battle on the Kulikovo Field summed up the long-term confrontation between Rus' and the Horde. The day before, Mamai entered into a confrontation with the Moscow Grand Duke Dmitry, who refused to increase the tribute paid to the Horde. This prompted the khan to take military action.
Dmitry managed to assemble an impressive army, consisting of Moscow, Serpukhov, Belozersk, Yaroslavl and Rostov regiments. According to various estimates, on September 8, 1380, from 40 to 70 thousand Russians and from 90 to 150 thousand Horde troops fought in the decisive battle. The victory of Dmitry Donskoy significantly weakened the Golden Horde, which predetermined its further collapse.
5. Battle of Molodi (1572)
In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray, during a raid on Moscow, burned the Russian capital, but was unable to enter it. A year later, having received the support of the Ottoman Empire, he organized a new campaign against Moscow. However, this time the Crimean-Turkish army was forced to stop 40 kilometers south of the capital, near the village of Molodi.
According to the chronicles, Devlet Giray brought with him an army of 120 thousand. However, historians insist on the figure of 60 thousand. One way or another, the Crimean-Turkish forces significantly outnumbered the Russian army, whose number did not exceed 20 thousand people. Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky managed to lure the enemy into a trap and defeat him with a sudden strike from the reserve.
6. Battle of Moscow (1612)
The decisive episode of the Time of Troubles was the battle between the forces of the Second Militia, led by Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, with the army of Hetman Khodkiewicz, who was trying to release the Polish-Lithuanian garrison locked in the Kremlin.
During the first hours of the battle that unfolded in the Zamoskvorechye area, the Polish-Lithuanian detachments, which outnumbered the Russians (12 thousand versus 8 thousand), intensively pressed them. But, as the chronicles write, the Russian commanders took advantage of the short respite and managed to restore the morale of the troops.
The counter-offensive of the militia eventually brought chaos to the camp of Jan Chodkiewicz and put the enemy to flight.
“The hope of taking possession of the entire Moscow state collapsed irrevocably,” notes the Polish chronicler.
7. Battle of Poltava (1709)
In the autumn of 1708, instead of marching on Moscow, the Swedish king Charles XII turned south to wait out the winter and move on the capital with renewed vigor. However, without waiting for reinforcements from Stanislav Leszczynski. Having been refused help from the Turkish Sultan, he decided to give a general battle to the Russian army near Poltava.
Not everyone took part in the battle assembled forces. By various reasons On the Swedish side, out of 37 thousand, no more than 17 thousand people entered the battle, on the Russian side, out of 60 thousand, about 34 thousand fought. The victory achieved by Russian troops on June 27, 1709 under the command of Peter I, brought a turning point in Northern War. Soon the end of Swedish domination in the Baltic was put to an end.
8. Battle of Chesma (1770)
The naval battle in Chesme Bay was in full swing Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774. The Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov, having discovered Turkish ships in the roadstead, was the first to decide to attack the enemy.
Despite the fact that the Russian fleet was significantly inferior to the Turkish one (ratio of ships: 30/73), it quickly secured a strategic advantage.
First, they managed to set fire to the flagship of the Turkish squadron, Burj u Zafer, and this was followed by a general fire of the enemy fleet. From 3 a.m. to 9 a.m., more than fifty Turkish ships burned. The victory allowed Russia to seriously disrupt Turkish communications in the Aegean Sea and ensure a blockade of the Dardanelles.
9. Battle of Kozludzhi (1774)
Battle of Kozludzhi
During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia achieved another important victory. The Russian army under the command of Alexander Suvorov and Mikhail Kamensky near the city of Kozludzha (now Suvorovo in Bulgaria), being in a disadvantageous position and inferior in numbers to Turkish troops (24 thousand versus 40 thousand), was able to achieve a positive result.
The action of the Russian troops was seriously hampered by the wooded area, which hid the Turkish forces and made it difficult to use artillery. However, during an 8-hour battle in intense heat, Suvorov managed to knock the Turks off the hill and put them to flight without even resorting to a bayonet attack. This victory largely predetermined the outcome of the Russian-Turkish war and forced Ottoman Empire sign a peace treaty.
10. Capture of Ishmael (1790)
The capture of the stronghold - the Turkish fortress of Izmail - fully revealed the military genius of Suvorov. Previously, Ishmael did not submit to either Nikolai Repnin, Ivan Gudovich, or Grigory Potemkin. All hopes were now pinned on Alexander Suvorov.
The commander spent six days preparing for the siege of Izmail, practicing with his troops the capture wooden model high fortress walls. On the eve of the assault, Suvorov sent an ultimatum to Aidozle-Mehmet Pasha:
“I arrived here with the troops. Twenty-four hours to think - and will. My first shot is already captivity. Assault is death."
“It’s more likely that the Danube will flow backwards and the sky will fall to the ground than Ishmael will surrender,” answered the pasha.
The Danube did not change its course, but in less than 12 hours the defenders were thrown off the fortress tops, and the city was taken. Thanks to a skillful siege, out of 31 thousand soldiers, the Russians lost a little more than 2 thousand, the Turks lost 26 thousand out of 35 thousand.
11. Battle of Cape Tendra (1790).
The commander of the Turkish squadron, Hasan Pasha, managed to convince the Sultan of the imminent defeat of the Russian navy, and at the end of August 1790 he moved the main forces to Cape Tendra (not far from modern Odessa). However, for the anchored Turkish fleet, the rapid approach of the Russian squadron under the command of Fyodor Ushakov was an unpleasant surprise.
Despite the superiority in the number of ships (45 versus 37), the Turkish fleet tried to flee. However, by that time, Russian ships had already attacked the front line of the Turks. Ushakov managed to remove all the flagship ships of the Turkish fleet from the battle and thereby demoralize the rest of the enemy squadron.
The Russian fleet did not lose a single ship.
12. Battle of Borodino (1812)
Painting by Louis Lejeune "Battle of Borodino"
On August 26, 1812, significant forces of the French and Russian armies clashed in the battle near the village of Borodino, 125 kilometers west of Moscow. The regular troops under the command of Napoleon numbered about 137 thousand people, the army of Mikhail Kutuzov with the Cossacks and militia that joined it reached 120 thousand.
The outcome of the Battle of Borodino is debatable. However, most historians agree that neither side achieved a decisive advantage. The Battle of Borodino became the bloodiest in the history of one-day battles. The Russians, according to various estimates, lost from 40 to 46 thousand people, the French - from 30 to 40 thousand. Napoleon’s army, which left about 25% of its strength on the Borodino field, largely lost its combat effectiveness.
13. Battle of Elisavetpol (1826)
One of the key episodes of the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828 was the battle near Elisavetpol (now the Azerbaijani city of Ganja). The victory then achieved by Russian troops under the command of Ivan Paskevich over the Persian army of Abbas Mirza became an example of military leadership.
Paskevich managed to use the confusion of the Persians who had fallen into the ravine to launch a counterattack. Despite the superior enemy forces (35 thousand against 10 thousand), the Russian regiments began to push back Abbas Mirza’s army along the entire front of the attack. The losses of the Russian side amounted to 46 killed, the Persians were missing 2,000 people.
14. Capture of Erivan (1827)
"The Capture of the Erivan Fortress by Russian Troops", F. Roubaud
The fall of the fortified city of Erivan was the culmination of numerous Russian attempts to establish control over the Transcaucasus. Built in the middle of the 16th century, the fortress was considered impregnable and more than once became a stumbling block for the Russian army.
Ivan Paskevich managed to competently besiege the city from three sides, placing cannons along the entire perimeter. “The Russian artillery acted wonderfully,” recalled the Armenians remaining in the fortress. Paskevich knew exactly where the Persian positions were located. On the eighth day of the siege, Russian soldiers burst into the city and dealt with the fortress garrison with bayonets.
15. Battle of Sarykamysh (1914)
By December 1914, during the First World War, Russia occupied a 350 km front from the Black Sea to Lake Van, while a significant part of the Caucasian Army was pushed forward - deep into Turkish territory. Turkey came up with a tempting plan to outflank the Russian forces, thereby cutting off railway Sarykamysh-Kars.
On December 12, Turkish troops performing a flanking maneuver occupied Bardus and advanced to Sarykamysh. The unusually frosty weather helped the Russian defenders of the city, led by General Nikolai Przhevalsky, withstand the onslaught of superior enemy forces, push back the Turkish units with the approach of the reserve and encircle them. The Turkish army near Sarykamysh lost 60 thousand people.
16. Brusilovsky breakthrough (1916)
The offensive operation of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Alexei Brusilov, carried out from May to September 1916, became, according to military historian Anton Kersnovsky, “a victory like world war We haven’t won yet.” The number of forces that were involved on both sides is also impressive - 1,732,000 Russian soldiers and 1,061,000 soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies.
The Brusilov breakthrough, thanks to which Bukovina and Eastern Galicia were occupied, became a turning point in the First World War. Germany and Austria-Hungary, having lost a significant part of the army, repelling the Russian offensive operation, eventually gave up the strategic initiative to the Entente.
17. Battle for Moscow (1941-1942)
The long and bloody defense of Moscow, which began in September 1941, moved into the offensive phase on December 5, ending on April 20, 1942. Near Moscow, Soviet troops inflicted the first painful defeat on Germany, thereby thwarting the plans of the German command to capture the capital before the onset of cold weather.
The length of the front of the Moscow operation, which unfolded from Kalyazin in the north to Ryazhsk in the south, exceeded 2 thousand km. More than 2.8 million military personnel, 21 thousand mortars and guns, 2 thousand tanks and 1.6 thousand aircraft took part in the operation on both sides.
German General Gunther Blumentritt recalled:
“Now it was important for German political leaders to understand that the days of the blitzkrieg were a thing of the past. We were confronted by an army whose fighting qualities were far superior to all other armies we had ever encountered.”
18. Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943)
Battle of Stalingrad considered the largest land battle in human history. The total losses of both sides, according to rough estimates, exceed 2 million people, about 100 thousand German soldiers were captured. For the Axis countries, the defeat at Stalingrad turned out to be decisive, after which Germany was no longer able to restore its strength.
The French writer Jean-Richard Bloch rejoiced in those victorious days: “Listen, Parisians! The first three divisions that invaded Paris in June 1940, the three divisions that, at the invitation of the French General Denz, desecrated our capital, these three divisions - the hundredth, one hundred and thirteenth and two hundred and ninety-fifth - no longer exist! They were destroyed at Stalingrad: the Russians avenged Paris!”
20. Capture of Berlin (1945)
Soviet artillery on the approaches to Berlin, April 1945.
The assault on Berlin was the final part of the Berlin offensive operation, which lasted 23 days. Soviet troops were forced to capture the German capital alone due to the Allies’ refusal to participate in this operation. Stubborn and bloody battles claimed the lives of at least 100 thousand Soviet soldiers.
“It is unthinkable that such a huge fortified city could be taken so quickly. We know of no other such examples in the history of World War II,” wrote historian Alexander Orlov.
The result of the capture of Berlin was the exit Soviet troops to the Elbe River, where their famous meeting with the allies took place.