Flower science and coloristics guidelines. Color science and coloristics methodological guide to the course of color science Ugues Dolomatov M.Yu
Narsky I.V. Western European philosophy of the 19th century. M., 1976.
Abstract
Introduction
The clash of opposing worldviews, the intensity of theoretical debates, the abundance of movements and names make the study of 19th century philosophy. not an easy task, so let’s focus only on the truly great thinkers. Classical German idealism is the central object of study in the book.
Classical idealist dialectics in Germany, in a certain sense, revived the principles of rationalism, and the Enlightenment tradition was comprehended. The 19th century in philosophy inherited from French materialism the belief in progress and reason, then raised to the level of social science by Marx and Engels. On the other hand, many philosophers of the second half of the 19th century centuries were imbued with irrationalism and subjectivism, thinkers took up subjectivist interpretations of classical philosophy, forming more and more new teachings with the prefix “neo”. The struggle between idealism and materialism acquired corresponding new forms.
Thus, XIX century. philosophically does not constitute a single picture.
Immanuel Kant
The origins of classical German idealism. Four great classics of German idealism of the late 18th – first third of the 19th centuries. – Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. In the ideology of the German Enlightenment, compromise was expressed in a tendency to reduce all political and social problems to moral ones. In the works of the classics, compromise was expressed in the form of different interpretations of the relationship between “existence” and “ought.”
Part of their idealism was regressive, since they all opposed materialism. But the backward movement towards idealism revealed the significant shortcomings of the old materialism, but opposed idealist dialectics to the metaphysical method of the French materialists.
Classical German idealism significantly expanded the field of problems under study, laying claim to encyclopedicism.
The beginnings of classical German idealism are already present in the work of Kant, who worked when the ideological preparation of the bourgeois revolution was taking place in France, Rousseau’s ideas dominated the minds of Europe, and in Germany literature had influence. "Storm and Drang" movement. Kant accepted the Enlightenment values of human reason and dignity, becoming an enemy of feudal obscurantism and moral impoverishment. But he began to hold back the progress of enlightenment with the motive of self-restraint. Kant believed that he lived not in an enlightened age, but in an age of enlightenment, but before the realization of the ideals of the Enlightenment in real life still far.
Life of Kant. I. Kant was born in 1724 in Konigsberg, was the son of a modest saddlemaker, graduated from the university, and worked as a home teacher for 9 years. In 1755 he began giving lectures on metaphysics and many natural science subjects, and was an assistant librarian at the royal castle. He received the professorship of logic and metaphysics only at the age of 46. He strengthened his weak health from birth with a clear daily routine. In 1794 he was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences.
It gained wide popularity only in the last decade of the 18th century. Kant died in 1804.
Milestones of Kant's creativity. I. Pre-critical period (1746 – 1770).
II. 1770 - the beginning of the “critical” period in his philosophy.
In 1781, “Critique of Pure Reason” was published - Kant’s main epistemological work.
1788 - “Critique of Practical Reason”, 1797 - “Metaphysics of Morals”.
1790 - “Critique of Judgment”, the 3rd and final part of Kant’s philosophical system.
1793 - bypassing censorship, Kant publishes a chapter from the treatise “Religion within the Limits of Reason Only,” then the entire book and the article “The End of All Things,” directed against orthodox religion, for which King Frederick William II reprimanded the philosopher. But after the death of the king, Kant in 1798 published a “dispute of faculties”, where he insisted that Holy Bible must be considered “a complete allegory.”
"Precritical" Kant. At first, Kant uncritically combined the ideas of Leibniz and Wolff, then he combined natural science materialism with Wolffian metaphysics, showed interest in issues of cosmology and cosmogony, wrote works on the change in the rotation of the Earth around its axis, “The General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens” based on Newtonian mechanics, but the role there is less divine intervention in Kant than in Newton's natural philosophy.
Kant denied the possibility of absolute rest and sought to prove the universal circulation of matter in the Universe. He viewed the end of worlds as the beginning of new ones. His cosmogonic hypothesis is deistic in nature.
Kant appealed to God as the creator of matter and the laws of its motion. In 1763 he wrote “The only possible basis for proving the existence of God.”
Kant reveals agnostic motives: natural causes cannot explain the origin of living nature, since mechanics cannot explain the origin of even one caterpillar.
Kant reveals a tendency to separate consciousness from being, which reached in the 70s. apogee. For example, he insists that real relations, negations and reasons are “of a completely different kind” than logical ones. He is right in emphasizing that the predicate of a thing and the predicate of a thought about this thing are not the same thing. One must distinguish between the real and the logically possible. But the tendency for a deeper and deeper distinction between the two types of foundation led Kant in the direction of Hume. He comes to contrast logical connections with causal ones.
In “pre-critical” creativity there was also a struggle against extreme spiritualism (“Dreams of a Spiritualist, Explained by the Dreams of Metaphysics” (1766)), which undermines all hopes of knowing the essence of psychic phenomena.
Thus, during this period the positions that formed the basis of Kant’s “critical” teaching began to take shape.
The transition to the critical period is usually dated to 1770, when Kant defended his dissertation “On the Form and Principles of the Sensibly Perceptible and Intelligible World.” He became disillusioned with the rationalism of Wolff, the empiricism of Locke and Holbach, and was impressed by Leibniz. The hopes of the leaders of the Enlightenment for quick knowledge of the secrets of nature seem naive to him, but the rejection of scientific knowledge is even more harmful.
Kant formulates a double task: “to limit knowledge in order to make room for faith.” Here a “middle path between dogmatism... and skepticism” is outlined, a reconciliation of idealism with materialism on an ontological basis.
Kant called his philosophy critical idealism or transcendental idealism. He divided the abilities of the human soul into the ability of knowledge, the feeling of pleasure and displeasure and desire. The first is characterized by the activity of reason, the second by judgment, the third directs the mind through the search for final goals to achieve morality and freedom. Kant rejects theoretical evidence of the necessity of metaphysics, formulating the task of critical metaphysics.
At the beginning of his epistemological research, Kant poses the question: What can I know? And there are three more loans: What should I do? What can I hope for? What is a person and what can he become?
Epistemological classification of judgments. Synthetic a priori. To answer, Kant builds a typology of knowledge, dividing it into imperfect and perfect (truly scientific). The features of the latter are reliability, universality and necessity; it cannot be acquired from experience. Perfect knowledge is extra-empirical, a priori in nature. Kant distinguishes between empirical (a posteriori) and “pure” (a priori) knowledge.
Kant also distinguishes between analytical and synthetic knowledge.
The relationship between types of judgments is as follows:
| Analytical | Synthetic | |
| A posteriori | Their existence is impossible. | They exist as part of imperfect knowledge, for example: “a lot of gold is mined in Siberia,” “this house is on a hill,” “some bodies are heavy.” |
| A priori | They exist as part of perfect knowledge, for example: “everything conditioned presupposes the presence of a condition,” “a square has four corners,” “bodies are extended.” | They exist as part of perfect knowledge, for example: “everything that happens has its cause,” “in all changes in the corporeal world, the amount of matter remains unchanged.” |
The term “a priori” has several connotations. A priori is something that has some kind of, not further specified, non-experimental and in this sense “pure” origin. In Kant's reasoning about the ideals of behavior, the a priori does not point to what exists, but to what should be and, moreover, what is generally obligatory. The lack of experience of the a priori means that epistemologically it is “before” any experience, including psychological experience.
Kant's principle of the primacy of synthesis over analysis triumphs in synthetic judgments a priori. With the help of his supposedly proven existence of synthetic a priori judgments, he seeks to establish theses about the creative role of non-experiential consciousness and the possibility of rational knowledge, in principle independent of sensory knowledge. Hegel saw in this desire a deep dialectic: a single consciousness gives rise to a variety of knowledge, and this knowledge is a synthesis.
For Kant, the distinction between the analytical and the synthetic stems from the difference between the respective methods: a course of reasoning is analytical if it does not introduce new or even complex objects and does not conclude from the presence of one individual object to the existence (or non-existence) of another. But the line of reasoning is synthetic if it asserts that “due to the fact that there is something, there is also something else ... because something exists, something else is eliminated.”
Affirming the existence of synthetic a priori judgments, Kant, already at the beginning of his system, puts forward the dialectical problem of creative synthesis in knowledge. With the help of synthetic a priori judgments, Kant hoped, first of all, to exhaustively explain and indisputably substantiate the possibility of “pure” (i.e., theoretical mathematics).
The structure of the epistemological field. Kant divides the cognitive ability of consciousness as a whole (“reason” in the broad sense of the word, i.e., intellect) into three different abilities: sensibility, reason, and reason itself in the narrow sense of the word. Each ability corresponds to a specific question: How is pure mathematics possible? How is pure natural science possible? How is metaphysics, i.e. ontology, possible?
According to the questions, Kant's epistemology is divided into three main parts: transcendental aesthetics, transcendental analytics and transcendental dialectics.
“Transcendental” for Kant means “that which, although it precedes experience (a priori), is intended only to make experimental knowledge possible.” We can say that abilities are transcendental, and their results are a priori.
“Transcendent” is that which is beyond the limits of experience and does not relate to experience, as well as those principles that try to go beyond the limits of experience. The transcendental and the a posteriori are almost diametrically opposed areas. Therefore, Kant sometimes calls the thing-in-itself a “transcendental object.”
So, the structure of the epistemological field according to Kant is as follows: 1. The area of sensations. 2. The a posteriori domain of objects of experience, ordered by a priori means (= science = truth = nature). 3. Transcendental abilities of the subject, which generate a priori means. 4. Transcendental apperception. 5. The transcendental region of non-experienced objects, i.e. the world of things in themselves.
Things in themselves (by themselves). Let's consider Kant's transcendental aesthetics. Kant understands by “aesthetics” the doctrine of sensuality in general as an epistemological doctrine, and not just concerning the contemplation of objects of art. Sensory contemplation is the beginning of all knowledge.
Important constituent element Kant considers the science of sensory knowledge and knowledge in general to be the doctrine of the “thing in itself.” He argues that beyond sensory phenomena there is an unknowable reality, about which in the theory of knowledge there is only an extremely abstract “pure” concept (noumenon). In epistemology, nothing definite can be said about things in themselves as such - neither that they are something divine, nor that they are material bodies.
The thing in itself, within the framework of Kant’s philosophical system, performs several functions:
1) The first meaning of the concept of a thing-in-itself in Kant’s philosophy is intended to indicate the presence of an external causative agent of our sensations and ideas. They “excite” our sensuality, awaken it to activity and to the appearance in it of various modifications of its states.
2) The second meaning is that this is any fundamentally unknowable object. We don't know in principle what they are. We know of a thing in itself only that it exists, and to some extent that which it is not. From things in themselves we have nothing except the thought of them as intelligible (intelligible) objects, about which it cannot be said that they are substances. This concept of the unknowable as such is “only the thought of some something in general.”
3) The third meaning embraces everything that lies in the transcendental region, that is, outside experience and the sphere of the transcendental. Among otherworldly things, Kant in his ethics postulates God and the immortal soul, that is, the traditional objects of objective idealism.
4) The fourth and generally idealistic meaning of the “thing in itself” is even broader as a kingdom of unattainable ideals in general, and this kingdom as a whole itself turns out to be a cognitive ideal of an unconditional higher synthesis. The thing in itself turns out to be the object of faith in this case.
Each of the four meanings of “things in themselves” corresponds to its own meaning of noumenon, that is, the concept of things in themselves, indicating the presence of the latter, but not giving positive knowledge about them.
Kant's ethical teaching. Kant affirms the primacy of practical reason over theoretical reason, of activity over knowledge. Kant adheres to the principle of the primacy of issues of morality of human behavior over issues of scientific knowledge.
Ethics is the main part of Kant's philosophy. At the center of Kantian philosophy is man, his dignity and destiny.
Kant's ethics is autonomous. It is focused on a certain ideal independent of any incoming considerations and incentives. Neither sensual desires, nor selfish calculation, nor appeals to benefit or harm should be taken into account at all.
Practical reason prescribes to itself the principles of moral behavior and finds them within itself as an internal a priori impulse. He is the only source of morality, just as reason turned in Kant, as his “criticism” developed, into the only source of the laws of nature.
Legality and morality. An imperative is a rule containing “objective compulsion to act” of a certain type. There are two main types of them, identified by Kant: hypothetical in the sense of “depending on conditions” and the categorical imperative as a general invariant for a priori moral laws. This imperative is apodictic, necessarily unconditional. It follows from human nature, like hypothetical imperatives, but not from empirical, but from transcendental nature. He doesn't accept any "ifs". According to Kant, only that behavior is moral that completely obeys the requirements of the categorical imperative.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Johann Gotbib Fichte is a very original scientist, a contemporary of the Napoleonic Wars. Those who swept away the feudal rubbish of feudalism from the lives of peoples. The origins of Fichte's work are the political ideas of the French Revolution. But the absence of real political forces in Germany led to the fact that Fichte’s anti-feudal protest acquired an abstract form.
Life and work of Fichte. Fichte was born into a poor and large family of a rural weaver in East Saxony, and only the curiosity of a titled patron of the arts for the boy’s extraordinary abilities gave him the opportunity to receive an education.
Fichte read Rousseau with enthusiasm and became imbued with revolutionary democratic convictions. Kant's seeds also fall onto the prepared soil. Fichte abandons the rigid Spinozistic determinism and turns the efforts of his seething mind to finding a theoretical justification for freedom.
The idea of freedom captures Fichte's soul. It is also in tune with his inner character, uncompromising honesty and straightforwardness. It was as if a German sans-culotte had entered the philosophical world.
An important role was played by Fichte's meeting with Kant, to whom he showed his first essay, “The Experience of Criticism of All Revelation.” Kant recognized the guest's strong and original mind, contributed to the publication of his work, and when rumor attributed the authorship to Kant, he publicly explained the misunderstanding, and Fichte immediately gained wide fame.
But Kant did not recognize the direct genetic connection between Fichte’s ideas and his own, and then more decisively dissociated himself from them.
On the recommendation of Goethe, who became interested in the bright thinker, Fichte in 1784 took the position of professor at the University of Jena. During his years as a professor at Jena, Fichte created the basic outline of his philosophical system. Then the reactionaries expelled him, having become obsessed with his careless handling of the categories of religion.
But Fichte was invited to give lectures in Erlangen, Berlin, Koenigsberg and even Kharkov.
When Napoleon occupied Germany in 1806, Fichte plunged headlong into social activities, giving patriotic lectures. Since 1813, he has taken an active part in the bourgeois-democratic movement for the national restoration of Germany. He joined the militia, but in January 1814 he died of typhus, which he contracted from his wife, who worked in a military hospital.
Philosophy as a science. Initial intellectual intuition. Fichte emphasizes that philosophy is a science, and hopes to find in it the “fundamental science”, the science of sciences, knowledge of the processes of obtaining knowledge, the teaching of science and the justification of all knowledge in general. What we have before us is not yet a “science of sciences” in the Hegelian sense, but already a sketch of its concept.
Differences emerged between Kant and Fichte on the issue of knowledge. Fichte rightly considers the combination of idealistic and materialistic tendencies in Kahn's theory of knowledge to be eclecticism, but he sees the way to overcome it in getting rid of the doctrine of things in themselves. Recognizing, unlike Kant, intellectual intuition, Fichte brings it somewhat closer to rational activity, but, like Kant, denies the possibility of intuitive penetration into the other world (for Kant this world is unknowable, for Fichte it does not exist).
Fichte draws attention to the content of the pure transcendental “H,” i.e., the former Kantian apperception taken in its essence. By constructing the “I,” Fichte tries to reveal it as the very essence of consciousness, not as a thing, but as an action. If for Kant the active transcendental subject is passive in the sense that he is forced to deal with the matter of experience that is given to him, then in Fichte the active creative “I” is passive in the sense that it is not able to create the world otherwise than by influencing on yourself.
Three principles and their dialectics. Fichte builds the system of solipsism of the “I” through three fundamental judgments, which together express his interpretation of transcendental apperception.
1. The universal “I” asserts itself. “I” creates itself, and this is not some kind of permanent state, but a powerful act caused by a special beginning-impetus.
2. “I” cannot be satisfied with the first principle: it strives for self-determination, and this is impossible except through the mediation of another, that is, that which is different from “I”. Consequently, the second principle: “I” opposes itself to “not-I”. In essence, there is an “alienation” of the “not-I” from the “I”, expressing an idealistic solution to the main question of philosophy and anticipating Hegel.
3. The third principle plays the role of synthesis and leads the first two to unity. It says: consciousness posits and unites “I” and “not-I”.
Ethics of action and freedom. Fichte's ethics were developed in the “System of Doctrines of Morality...” (17989) and in a number of works on the purpose of man and scientist as a true person. According to Fichte, man is an organized product of nature. In its entirety, it is not only an object, but also a subject. As an object, it is not passive, and objective necessity, recognized by man as self-determination, turns into subjective freedom.
The historical path of mastery of material nature is a worldwide process of leap-like growth in the ethical culture of mankind.
If duty without feeling is a tedious duty, then feeling without duty is a blind and rude impulse. The combination of duty and feeling occurs precisely thanks to culture. Thus, “I,” in the course of the development of social civilization, must triumph both over nature in general and over its own natural basis.
As a result, the distinction between “legal” and “moral” actions will disappear, reason and feeling, duty and desire, theory and practice will be identified.
Philosophy of history, law and state. Fichte's philosophy of history is imbued with idealistic theology. The absolutely free “I” is not only the source and starting point of historical development, but also its criterion and goal, hovering somewhere in an unusually distant distance. History is a growing and forward-looking process of cultivating practical and theoretical reason, and it is generic in nature, although it occurs through the improvement of the consciousness of individuals.
External condition To realize the moral goals of history, according to Fichte, law and the state constitute. Fichte argues that man can only exist as a social being.
But the state is only a service and therefore temporary institution. It is only a condition, a means of moral progress for the empirical selves. After “myriads of years,” morality will replace the state, law and church. Only then will a truly “natural state” of man arise, corresponding to his actual nature and purpose.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Hegel's philosophy can be characterized as a system of dialectical objective idealism. At a new, higher level, he revived the ideas of idealistic rationalism of the 17th century, transforming the thesis about the coincidence of real and logical connections into the position about the dialectical (relative) identity of being and the thought of being. Hegel's epistemology, in contrast to Kant's theory of knowledge, is not reduced to the study of a person's subjective cognitive abilities, but is aimed at studying the dependence of the laws of cognition of an object on its own properties. Hegel comes to the conclusion that the laws of being are the laws of cognition of being, but on the basis of idealism this conclusion received the opposite meaning - deriving the laws of being from the laws of its cognition, so that Hegel’s ontology coincided with epistemology. All these motifs can be found in the Phenomenology of Spirit, a work that completes the formation of Hegel’s philosophical views. This is both an introduction to his philosophy and its application to a number of specific issues. “Phenomenology of Spirit”, as it were, programmed the future philosophy of spirit: its first five sections are a sketch of the doctrine of subjective spirit, the sixth section corresponds to the doctrine of objective spirit, and the last two – about the absolute spirit. Phenomenology of Spirit prepares Hegel's mature system. She proclaims the end of the kingdom of reason and the beginning of the kingdom of reason. Hegel's philosophy is the completion and highest achievement of German classical idealism. Hegel proclaimed man's ability to create himself, the infinite superiority of social life over nature and the power of the knowing consciousness. He substantiated all these theses through idealistic dialectics. Hegel's system is completed by the doctrine of absolute spirit. History achieves the unity of the subjective and objective states of the spirit on the basis of the level of rationality that is possible under the conditions of the most rationally structured state.
Ludwig Feuerbach
Young Hegelian movement. The starting point for the philosophical ideology of bourgeois-democratic movements of the late 30s. XIX century In Germany, the radical teachings of the Young Hegelians began. Their significance in the philosophical preparation of the revolution of 1848–1849. no doubt.
As the revolutionary situation approached, a split in the Hegelian school became inevitable. Outwardly, it seemed to be the result of a dispute about whether it would be correct to identify the Hegelian absolute with God, but its participants also differed among themselves in their answers to the question about the nature of the relationship of the absolute to man. But essentially the split was determined by the polemic between supporters of the radical and conservative interpretation of the formula “Everything that is reasonable is real, and everything that is real is reasonable.”
The right, or Old Hegelians, argued that the Hegelian absolute should be understood as the highest spiritual-individual being, representing the subject of rational world governance. But their philosophical activity expressed both their general conservatism and attempts to overcome the crisis of Protestant theology.
The left, or Young Hegelians, declared that their teacher was a pantheist, and some, for example Bruno Bauer, began to prove his atheism, and even reproached Hegel himself for the fact that in practice he himself moved away from his doctrine, which disoriented his students. The Young Hegelians decided to deepen his criticism of political and church reaction and rejected Hegel’s opinion on the need for the coincidence of state power, religion and the principles of philosophy.
Philosophers of the Young Hegelian circle. David Friedrich Strauss (1808 - 1874) wrote the two-volume Life of Jesus in the spirit of pantheism. Attacked both orthodox Christian and Hegelian Christology. According to Strauss, the gospel is a historical document of social psychology, namely a collection of myths of early Christian communities, Christ - natural man, because the absolute could not inhabit a single person, and God is the image of substantial infinity.
Bruno Bauer (1809 - 1882) went further in denying religion than Strauss. He rejected the real historical existence of Christ altogether. Bauer portrayed Hegel himself as an enemy of religion, the church and the Prussian state, a friend of materialism and the Jacobins. Bauer himself understood that this image did not really correspond to reality, but he wanted to stimulate the development of Young Hegelianism to the left. But the “leftism” of Bauer himself was limited to the fact that he reduced bourgeois revolutionism to intellectual criticism of religion, despotism and clericalism on the part of outstanding “critically thinking individuals.”
Arnold Ruge (1803 - 1880) was the first among the Young Hegelians to draw political conclusions from the criticism of religion, transferring its fire to the Hegelian philosophy of state and law. All the most political episodes of the Young Hegelian movement are associated with the name of Ruge, and it was in his articles that they briefly approached revolutionary democracy.
Stirner and Hess. Max Stirner (pseudonym of Kaspar Schmidt) (1806 - 1856) developed as a thinker in the Young Hegelian circle of the “Free”, but in the book “The One and His Property” he sharply criticizes them and appears as an extreme individualist and nihilist, rejecting any realities and values: morality, law, state, history, society, reason, truth, communism. “I am nothing, and from whom I myself will draw everything, as a creator-creator... My Self is most precious to me!” Many of his ideas formed the basis of the ideology of anarchism.
Moses Hess (1812 – 1875) also broke with the circle of Young Hegelians. His role in philosophy is twofold. On the one hand, as a result of his combination of the principles of historical necessity of Hegel, the humanism of Feuerbach and the utopian communism of Cabet, the theoretical basis of the movement of “true socialists” arose. On the other hand, Hess's critique of capitalism attracted the attention of the young Marx. But Hess himself was influenced by Marx and Engels. In “Philosophy of Action” (1843), Hess stated in what direction the time had come to remake Hegel’s teaching: “Now the task of the philosophy of spirit is to become a philosophy of action.”
Polish Hegelians. “Prolegomena to Historiosophy (1838) by August Cieszkowski (1814 – 1894)” immediately drew attention to such flaws in the Hegelian system as contemplation, a tendency towards fatalism, indifference to the fate of the individual and exclusion from philosophical analysis of the problems of happiness and the future of humanity. Tseshkovsky’s main idea is not to draw a line under the results of past development, but to put the conclusions of these philosophical results into practice.
Edward Dembosky (1822 – 1846) is the author of the “philosophy of creativity”, the main categories of which were “nationality”, “progress”, “action” and “daring”. He reproaches Hegel (like Fourier, Saint-Simon, the Girondins and the authors of the compromise Polish constitution) for eclecticism, which, in his opinion, means the reconciliation of opposites in theory and unprincipled compromises in political practice.
Life and work of Feuerbach. Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 – 1872) considered it his duty to solve the problem posed by life itself and also arising from the contradictions of Hegel’s teachings. What is the true nature of a real person and how can one determine his path to happiness? How to free him from the oppression of the omnipotent absolute? Having devoted his philosophy to the solution of these problems and placing at its center not the abstract “Self-Consciousness”, but a person, he gave it an anthropological character. By anthropological philosophy he understood the doctrine in which integral, a real man would be both the starting point and the final goal.
L. Feuerbach was born on July 28, 1804 to the family of a prominent lawyer, listened to Hegel's lectures at the University of Berlin. In the notes of “Doubts” (1827 – 1828), a protest against the dictates of idealistic thought is already brewing.
In “Thoughts on Death and Immortality” (1830), he contrasts the Christian dogma of personal immortality with the immortality of the human race in its real, earthly life, which became the starting point for Young Hegelian criticism. The essay was confiscated, Feuerbach was fired, and for six years he unsuccessfully tried to gain access to teaching again. As a sign of protest, he moved to the countryside for a quarter of a century, where he wrote his main works.
His most famous, although not the most mature, work is “The Essence of Christianity,” which caused a huge resonance. He developed the concept of criticism of religion as the alienated existence of the human essence, which took the form of illusory consciousness.
Feuerbach's lectures on the essence of religion were a political act, where he declared the need to become a "political materialist" since the subject of his lectures - religion - was "closely connected with politics."
He enthusiastically embraced the revolution of 1848–1849, and the victorious reaction and the militaristic regime of Bismarck met only hatred on his part. His old age passed in poverty, reaching complete poverty.
A question about dialectics. Anthropological principle. The presence of moments of dialectics in Feuerbach is undeniable. When he broke with Hegel's teaching, he did not reject the dialectic of interpersonal relations, although he retained little of it. But he noticed the dialectical fate of pantheism; a dialectical character is also inherent in the mechanism of religious alienation he denigrates. There are many real transitions to the opposite here, and “what was religion yesterday ceases to be it today; what seems atheism today will become religion tomorrow.” But the dialectic of all these moments is not comprehended by him as dialectics.
Anthropologism was the main feature of Feuerbach's materialism. Feuerbach’s “man” is no longer a conglomerate of passive atoms, drawn by external influences, “a block”, as it turns out to be among the leaders of French materialism, but an active individual. It is no longer an obedient organ of the absolute spirit, fatally included in the system of stages of ascent to a goal alien to the aspirations of people and incomprehensible to them. Feuerbach's anthropologism was directed primarily against the interpretation of man as a “servant of God” and a submissive instrument of the world spirit. From the point of view of a philosopher, for understanding a person, not only the affects of fear in religion or interest in knowledge are important, but also “love” as a philosophical category in the sense of not only desires, passion, admiration and dreams, but also effective self-affirmation.
For Feuerbach, “truth is neither materialism, nor idealism, nor physiology, nor psychology, truth is only anthropology.”
The concept of human nature. As M. Hess noted, Feuerbach humanized ontology, turned it towards the interests and needs of man and proclaimed materialistic humanism. The duty of a philosopher is to help people become happier. To do this, it is necessary to consider a person not in isolation from the surrounding world, but in connection with it, and this world is nature. Man and nature, as starting points of philosophizing, are united together by the concept of human nature.
But Feuerbach’s characterizations of man suffer from great social abstraction, since he distinguishes him from animals essentially only by the presence of a “superlative degree of sensualism.” The social aspect of philosophy is reduced by Feuerbach to the interaction in the “binomial” of individuals (“I” and “You”). The combination of two individuals in this “cell” of social life – in a heterosexual pair “I – You” – is a source of social diversity at higher levels.
Criticism of religion as alienation. Religion in the perspective of eras. "Religion of Man". In the analysis of religion, Feuerach took the baton from the materialists and enlighteners of the 18th century. He was the first to highlight and substantiate the idea that religion did not arise by chance, but naturally, and is a product of social psychology, which constantly reflects in the binary system “I – You”, and highlighted the basis of religion as a person’s sense of dependence. Religion turns out to be an expression of egoism. Religion is a “reflex, a reflection” of a person’s powerlessness and at the same time his active reaction to his powerlessness.
In order for a person’s religious self-alienation (self-deception, a vampire sucking out the content of connections between people, taking away love from a person to God) to be abolished, all people must become happy.
What to do with religion in the future? Feuerbach concludes that religion is necessary because it makes up for what people lack. He believes that humanity needs a “new religion.” Feuerbach’s thought about the need for religion, that is, about its adequate replacement, comes into play. The philosopher proposes to transfer the emotions of religious veneration to Humanity. “By reducing theology to anthropology, I raise anthropology to theology.”
Ethics Feuerbach, his “communism” and “love”. In ethics, Feuerbach took the position of abstract anthropological humanism, having exhausted all those possibilities of metaphysical materialism that could serve the development of anti-religious morality. In his vibrant ethical teaching, he includes all the moral implications of atheism, sharply opposing religious doctrines of morality. His conclusion: true morality and religion are antagonists.
He tries to base his teaching on morality on the principles of biopsychic sensibility. He orients his ethics towards justification, exaltation, glorification and, finally, deification of human impulses towards extremely complete and in this sense ideal sensual happiness. He calls for the deification of relationships between people, for their path to happiness lies only through them, to deify the love of “I” for “You” and “You” for “I”. The religion of man turns out to be the religion of sexual love.
The need of people for each other equalizes them and unites them with each other, develops a sense of collectivism. If, instead of faith in God, people gain faith in themselves and achieve that “man is God to man,” then the friendship of all people with each other will be established without distinction of gender - and this will be the path to communism. “Communism” in Feuerbach’s writings is a designation for the general fact that people need each other.
Feuerbach traces his ethics to the principle of rational egoism. Everyone strives for happiness; to be a person means to be happy. But the condition for happiness is also the happiness of the partner. Happiness can only be mutual, and from here Feuerbach wants to reinterpret egoism as altruism, deriving the latter as a necessary requirement from the former.
Theory of knowledge. "Love" again. Feuerbach sharply emphasizes that the objective world is cognized by the subject through human senses, and all nature is cognized through the knowledge of human nature. That's why highest form cognition – sexual intercourse.
In Feuerbach's epistemology, new shades are added to the terms “sensuality” and “love”. Sensuality takes on the meaning of the fullness of life experience, and love is a set of actions that provide people with active communication and unity with nature.
Irrationalism of the mid-19th century. Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860) contrasted his teaching with rationalism and dialectical teaching to Hegel, which he called the “basilisk egg.” He also reacted with hatred to Feuerbach’s materialism.
The deep pessimism characteristic of Schopenhauer had a complex nature: the feudal-aristocratic contempt for the established soulless merchant morals of the order was later added to the gloomy skepticism of a bourgeois ideologist who did not expect anything good from the future.
Metaphysics of Will. Schopenhauer himself admitted that his philosophical system arose as an amalgam of the ideas of Kant, Plato and Indian Buddhists. His philosophy is eclectic, but it is permeated by certain common principles.
Of all Kant’s categories, he recognized only causality, but also included time and space among the categories, and in Kant’s thesis about the primacy of practical reason over theoretical reason he saw the germ of his doctrine of the primacy of the volitional principle. In Indian philosophy, his attention was attracted by the concept of "maya" and the ideal of immersion in "nirvana".
The starting point of Schopenhauer’s reasoning is the assertion that the world of our experience is purely phenomenal, it is just a set of ideas reminiscent of “maya (appearance)”, but categorically ordered.
The philosopher turned the law of sufficient reason into a method of cognition of phenomena, while he proposes to discover philosophical truths through intuition of the Schelling kind. Schopenhauer called this law “the general form of an object,” appearing in 4 different forms depending on the class of objects (1. Class of physical objects-phenomena in the relations of time, space and causality; 2. Abstract concepts related to each other through judgments “ mind”, which is understood as the ability of all theoretical thinking; 3. Mathematical objects generated by the relations of time and space; 4. Empirical “I” as subjects of various expressions of will). Consequently, the law takes on four types: sufficient grounds for becoming, cognition, being and action, or motivation.
The entire world of phenomena around us is a set of sensory and intuitive ideas of human subjects. The earth, seas, houses, bodies of people are objects-representations, but the representing subjects-people themselves also turn out to be only representations, so that literally the entire world of phenomena is not so much imagined as imagined, like a dream, Buddhist “Maya”.
“Behind” the phenomena there is a world of things in themselves, which is a kind of metaphysical Will. It is unique, but its manifestations are multiple. Among the most eloquent are gravity, magnetism, the forces of chemical affinity, the desire of animals for self-preservation, the sexual instinct of animals and the various affects of people.
But unlike Kant, Will as a thing in itself in Schopenhauer is recognizable or at least identifiable, and secondly, it would be easier to call it Force or Energy with a capital letter.
Schopenhauer's pessimism. The World Will is irrational, blind and wild, has no plan, is in a state of eternal dissatisfaction, “forced to devour itself, since there is nothing besides it and it is a hungry will.” Hence, people’s lives are full of constant anxiety, bitter disappointments and torment. Chapter 46 of Volume II of “The World as Will and Idea” is entitled: “On the insignificance and sorrows of life.”
Schopenhauer denies in principle the existence of progress in human society. History seems to him to be a meaningless web of events.
Manifestations of will collide and fight with each other. The will, through its creations, finds itself plunged into suffering, tries to overcome them, but this is tantamount to the fact that it fights with itself, but only plunges itself into new troubles: “... in the heat of passion, sinks its teeth into its own body... The tormentor and the tormented are one” .
The doctrine of self-abolition of the Will and its social meaning. Schopenhauer shows how people can cease to be slaves and instruments of such a deceptive and disappointing world Will to live. The way out is in the development by people of vital energy, which must be directed against the Will as such. We must turn our human will against itself.
This activity has two stages. The first gives only temporary liberation from the service of the Will, helps to escape from it for a while. This is aesthetic contemplation.
The second, highest stage of annihilation is associated with the ethical field of human activity. A person must extinguish the will to life and renounce it, surrender to quietism, that is, the cessation of desires, asceticism. The will of the ascetic crushes the will to live and thereby undermines the Will in general. The abolition of the subject also destroys the object, for Schopenhauer accepted the subjective-idealist thesis: without the subject there is no object.
The highest human ideal turns out to be the “holy” hermit. The successor of this system, E. Hartmann, made a direct conclusion about the expediency of collective suicide, but Schopenhauer reasoned that the ascetic flees from the pleasures of life, which means life itself, while the suicide seeks to avoid life's suffering, which means he loves the joys of life, and by his act , on the contrary, affirms it.
Schopenhauer did not believe in progress and denounced humanism, calling it a vile companion of materialism and “bestialism.” Although he recognized the affinity of the Christian message of "compassion", he liked the Buddhist message of submissive self-denial. In it, “compassion” was followed by “chastity”, “poverty” and readiness to suffer, after which - quietism, asceticism and “mysticism”. The ultimate goal“nirvana” appears as the abolition of the entire universe of Will, i.e., universal death: if at least one subject remains alive, in his ideas the world of objects will continue to exist, so the task of abolition of being will remain unsolved.
Eduard Hartman. Hegel's dialectics, represented by the system of the “prince of pessimists” Schopenhauer, received a kind of anti-dialectical double. From Schopenhauer, traditions of philosophical decadence begin, which go to the theorist of the “unconscious” E. Hartmann, then to the neo-Kantian G. Vaihinger, the young F. Nietzsche and the entire “philosophy of life”, to Z. Freud and A. Camus.
The immediate impact of Schopenhauer's philosophy was its pessimism. Eduard Hartmann (1842 – 1906) began to improve this theory, who added borrowings from Schelling, Darwin’s evolutionary theory, and most of all from Hegel’s dialectics and rationalism to Schopenhauer’s eclectic structure. In Hartmann’s main works “Philosophy of the Unconscious” (1869) and “The Doctrine of Categories” (1896) the following theoretical concept is outlined: the unconscious principle as the unity of Will and Idea develops through teleological splitting, like Schelling’s absolute, and then through the war of will and reason, i.e. i.e. through the war of opposites, like Hegel’s world spirit. The categories are a priori, like Kant's, but they are unconscious structures of the action of the impersonal mind in human individuals. “Man is completely dependent on the unconscious,” and receives from it only sorrow and suffering. The pursuit of happiness is a foolish illusion. But our world is the best of worlds, because it is capable of self-destruction. People must commit themselves to self-destruction and thereby achieve the “redemption” (Erlösung) of the world.
In the time of Bismarck, the doctrine of self-negation of the will was replaced by Nietzsche’s “will to power,” which was accompanied by an increasingly progressive denigration of reason. These concepts were of a cosmic nature. S. Kierkegaard followed a different path, alien to generalization.
Soren Kierkegaard
Like Schopenhauer, he attacked scientific knowledge and Hegel’s dialectics. He rejects the Hegelian identity of being and thinking, because under no circumstances does he recognize the rationality of reality. He separates thinking and being, logic and dialectics, objectivity and subjectivity from each other, discards the first and retains only the second. The subject of his reflections is dialectical subjectivity, the subjective dialectics of a unique individual.
The individual and the dialectics of its “existence.” Kierkegaard is an opponent of all philosophical systems, but he also developed a semblance of a system of thoughts. Its central idea is the principle of human individuality. The spiritual individual, the “Single,” forms the rules of his behavior contrary to the social environment and any of its laws, and the more he succeeds in this, the more lonely he is. “After all, one person for another cannot be anything other than an obstacle on his path,” a threat to his existence. The surrounding “mass” of people are “animals or bees,” and therefore “be afraid of friendship.” The people are something faceless, anonymous and “untrue”. Social associations, ideas of collectivism and social progress are a “pagan” illusion.
The mature Kierkegaard proclaimed the rebellion of the individual against the race, social class, state, and society. Everything universal, the universal, is false, only the Individual is “true” and only it has meaning. Only the One has “existence.”
By “existence,” Kierkegaard understands a specifically human category that expresses the existence of a unique individuality through the chain of its internal and also unique experiences, “moments.” “Existence” is, as it were, the apogee of life’s “shudder,” suffering and passionate attempts to escape its power. “To exist” means to realize one’s being through the free choice of one of the alternatives and thereby assert oneself as an individual, and not as a mass phenomenon from the “crowd”.
The category of “existence” is the focus of Kierkegaard’s dialectic, the dialectic of the psychological struggles of the subject in the cage of the opposites “finite” and “infinite,” “fear” as a state of uncertainty and “choice” as a decision that interrupts fluctuations between alternatives. But the dialectical collision of opposites is resolved by the philosopher not through a mediating synthesis, but with the help of a “leap-choice”: the impulse of determination allows one to jump, as if in one fell swoop, into the bosom of one of the alternatives, discarding the other.
Kierkegaard's dialectic is completely alien to the movement of general categories, is purely individualized and covered by an unsteady network of a kind of concepts-experiences. The main ones of these mental-emotional hybrids are: single, existence, moment, paradox, fear, guilt, sin, choice, leap, despair.
Using a complex system of pseudonyms, the philosopher began a series of Socratic dialogues with himself, also resorting to the tried and tested means of the Jena romantics - irony. For Kierkegaard, irony is doubt, which always elevates the doubter above the one “who teaches,” duality and mistrust, which, being convinced, itself turns into faith. However, before us is rather not a “Danish Socrates”, but a “Danish Tertullian”.
The concept of the experience of “choice” plays an important role, which is quite consistent with the history of his life and manifested in his character. Kierkegaard himself sought to emphasize the universal significance of his individual experiences, considering himself a man-problem.
Three lifestyles. "Paradox". The three stages of the earthly development of the Individual, the three images (styles) of his life concretize three different moral attitudes in relation to the surrounding world.
1) Aesthetic stage: a sensual way of life, characterized by eroticism and cynicism, chaos and chance.
2) Ethical stage: the individual chooses the position of a strict and universal distinction between good and evil and takes the side of the former, guided in his life by solid principles of morality and the obligations of duty (Kant!). When it becomes clear that a person is never morally self-sufficient and perfect because he is sinful and initially guilty, an ethically thinking individual will find a way out of his contradictions, moving on to the third stage of “existence.”
3) Religious stage. One of the personifications of this stage is the long-suffering Job, the other is Abraham, who, to please his God, who personally turned to him in a state of individual contact with him, and for the sake of faith in his God, showed a willingness to bear the burden of moral responsibility and guilt for violating His commandments .
Here another very important concept appears - the experience of Kierkegaard’s dialectic - “paradox”, i.e. the suffering of “existence” resulting from the conflict in his mental experiences. Kierkegaard's "paradoxes" are the highest passion of thinking, which is destroyed in this passion, ceasing to be thinking. All stages of the existence, truth and affirmation of the Christian faith are paradoxical. Kierkegaard was the first to notice that paradox is an ineradicable form of all theological thinking. Therefore, “Tertullian of the 20th Century” calls to believe precisely that faith is a matter of choice, a decision of the will, a leap, a risk, a miracle, an absurdity. Credo, quia absurdum est.
Subjectivity of truth, “fear” and “sickness leading to death.” Kierkegaard understands truth and faith as “subjectivity.” They do not know the truth, they exist in it.
At the stage of religious faith-experience, the Individual strives for a synthesis of the finite with the infinite, but it is unattainable, and any attempt to approach it entails new paradoxes, and therefore new yearnings of the spirit. The person here is especially overwhelmed by the languor of “fear,” that is, acute anxiety, which Kierkegaard, in the “concept of fear” (1844), connected in its origins with the ideas of sexuality and sinfulness in general.
“Fear” is a trembling state of burning fear of the unknown, mysterious, mystical. Whoever is engulfed by it is already guilty; faith at the third stage is called upon to save the Individual from the “fear”.
But at this stage, something opposite happens: fear and trepidation increase and bring the individual to extreme exhaustion of spirit: this is cruel languor, permanent despair, a “sickness towards death”, in which the attraction to the promised afterlife is combined with disgust from the expected transcendence.
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1.1. Color in various scientific disciplines
Color science is a comprehensive science about color, including a systematic set of data from physics, physiology and psychology about the natural phenomenon of color, as well as data from philosophy, aesthetics, art history, philology, ethnography, considering color as a cultural phenomenon.
Coloristics is a branch of color science that studies the patterns of use of color in various areas of human activity, where color is used as one of the expressive means that shape the architectural and spatial environment. Colorism is thought of as a color environment or polychromy of objects that form it, which satisfy a person aesthetically and utilitarianly, in contrast to a spontaneously arising color environment. This understanding allows us to talk about the color scheme of a city, an architectural ensemble, or a separate work of architecture, most often as the results of a professional action *.
Problems of color and coloristics have interested scientists since ancient times. A number of scientific disciplines (philosophical, natural sciences and humanities) study color in certain aspects. Thus, physics is primarily interested in the energetic nature of color; physiology - the process of perception of light by the organs of vision and its transformation into color; psychology - problems of color perception and its impact on the human psyche, the ability to evoke various emotions; biology - the meaning and role of color in the life of living organisms and plants; mathematics is carried out
quantifies colors and determines the color tone and saturation of the required color using the corresponding coordinates of color graphs (colorimetry); chemistry studies the properties of substances and their compounds to develop dye formulations that are adequate to the required colors and their combinations and mixtures; philosophy considers color within the framework of the metaphysics of light; aesthetics explores the laws of harmonization color combinations from the standpoint of certain ideals of social consciousness in accordance with the measure of a person, the measure of a thing harmonized by color, and the measure of the environment in which the object functions and is perceived.
In the modern world, there are a number of scientific disciplines that study the role of color in narrower spheres of human activity, for example, printing, criminology, etc. The set of such sciences is defined as color science. By integrating knowledge gained from color science, coloristics provides the architect and designer with a certain set of techniques and means for displaying the compositional concept in color.
1.2. Understanding color in the process of human development
A person’s attitude towards color changed depending on the level of development of the material, spiritual and artistic spheres of society. The gradual transition from mythological consciousness to scientific knowledge about the nature of color phenomena was important for understanding the role of color.
IN The history of systematization and classification of colors can be distinguished into two large periods: the first - pre-scientific - from prehistoric times to the end of the 16th century, the second - scientific - from the 17th century. until now .
IN the first period, the basic human concepts of color were developed
And The main traditions of using color in all types of life arose. Thus, primitive people identified colors with the most valuable substances and vital elements for them (blood, milk, fire, earth), which corresponded to red, white and black. Colors and paints were very important elements of magical rituals: color served as a word that generates or kills, good or evil. The mythological thinking of prehistoric society will be inherited by the first civilized states. With the development of agriculture and cattle breeding
And With the formation of the pantheon, others were added to the main colors. For example, the ancient Greeks and Chinese had yellow, the Chinese and Egyptians had blue as the color of the sky, and all peoples had green as the color of vegetation. Color was assigned to each of the host of gods. At the same time, not only the clothes, but also the bodies had their own color.
More complex public relations and the development of science in the era of an-
tism made changes to the classification of colors and the rules of their combinations: colors began to be divided into noble and low, cultural and barbaric, dark and bright. People increasingly began to realize beauty as such, and the concept of harmony became the most important category. At this time, a division appeared into the colors of architectural polychrome and the colors of painting. Besides,
There was also a classification of color based on mythological tradition. In accordance with ancient mythology, colors were highlighted that symbolized the elements, light and darkness.
Christian religion and its dogmas in medieval Europe They divide colors into “divine” and “godly”: the first are the main, revered and beautiful, the rest are secondary, or despised. The “divine” colors included golden, red, blue, white, green, purple; gray, brown, many mixed colors were considered everyday and prosaic.
IN In the countries of the Middle East, Islam had a great influence on the classification of colors. In accordance with the Koran, which contains the tenets of the Islamic faith, the principles of philosophy, ethics and aesthetics, noble, beautiful colors included white, gold, red, blue, green, and pearl. Other colors were considered ugly. The ideal of Islamic culture is the Garden of Eden, so mausoleums, tombs, temples (mosques), and theological schools (madrassas) were decorated with floral patterns.
IN the Renaissance era in Europe became widespread
And medieval color classifications, supplemented by Leonardo da Vinci. His color system was based on the painter's minimal palette. He identified yellow, blue, and red as the four main colors in nature.
And green . In the depths of the culture of the Renaissance, the emergence of an objective physical-optical knowledge of color and color vision. At the end of the 16th century. In connection with the development of natural sciences, the phenomenon of color migrated from philosophical works, where it occupied an unenviable place, to the laboratories of physicists, who “took it apart piece by piece” using the methods of experimental mathematical natural science.
From the middle of the 17th century. ideas about the nature of color change. The foundations of modern scientific concepts about color were laid by I. Newton in his work “A New Theory of Light and Color” published in 1672. Newton was the first to divide the science of color into two parts - objective (physical) and subjective, associated with sensory perception. He established that sunlight has a complex composition and consists of radiation with different refractive indices, so that homogeneous radiation cannot change its original color, no matter what transformations it undergoes. Having obtained the solar spectrum and explained its nature, Newton laid the foundation for a linear systematization of colors. He divided colors into homogeneous (primary or simple) and heterogeneous (derivative). Seven “simple” spectral colors and one - purple, formed by mixing the extreme colors of the spectrum - served as the basis for a color taxonomy in the form of a circle. Newton gave the correct explanation for the colors of natural bodies and the surfaces of objects. He was responsible for the first experiments in optical color mixing. Newton's spectral color classification system has become the basis of color taxonomy in modern times.
IN end of the 18th century V. Goethe, who did not agree with Newton’s theory, created a new way of classifying colors - according to a physical principle. The color wheel he constructed consists of three pairs of contrasting colors. The basis of the circle is a triangle of main colors. Yellow and blue correspond to light and dark and are the primary colors, as they arose from opposites. Goethe considered the color red as an intensification of yellow, violet - blue. Goethe's work “The Doctrine of Color” (1810) laid the foundations for two new branches of the science of color - physiological optics and the doctrine of psychological impact colors.
IN In 1772, the German scientist I. Lambert tried to construct a classification of colors that would reflect color changes in lightness and saturation.
sti. In 1810, the German painter O. Runge published his theory of color, in which the issue of low-saturated colors was first raised. Thanks to his work, the color system acquired a third dimension. The German artist built a color ball that combined spectral and achromatic colors, whitened and blackened.
IN XIX century The German scientist G. Helmholtz in his works clarified the question of the primary colors (red, green and blue), which in adjunctive mixtures give all the other colors of the spectrum in any saturation. Physiological optics took this triad as a basis. However, the triad of primary colors - red, yellow and blue, which form the basis of the color wheel - has not lost its meaning. Helmholtz also established three components to characterize colors: hue, saturation and lightness. The German physiologist E. Hering defined three areas of color research - physical, physiological, psychological. And the work of the English physicist J. Maxwell on the study of color perception laid the foundations for the three-component theory of vision.
IN XIX century Painters began to use the scientific systematics of color. The French artist E. Delacroix was one of the first to begin to decide on color
static tasks of painting using a color triangle, circle
And mixing scales. The achievements of the exact science of color were then reflected in the works of the impressionists and neo-impressionists. Interesting
And The research of the Czech scientist J. Purkynė in the field of color perception depending on the angle of vision and adaptation of the eye is relevant.
Beginning of the 20th century - a new period of creating scientific systems, developing methods for quantifying and measuring color. Enormous work in the field of color systematization was done by a number of scientists: W. Ostwald - Ostwald’s “color body”; A. Munsell - spatial model based on the Runge color ball; J. Gildon and V. Wrighton - precise studies to determine color addition functions (data obtained by the Congress of the International Commission on Illumination in 1931 were the basis for the international color measurement system), etc.
Its theoretical justification and recognition as one of the leading
color receives from the main compositional means thanks to the representatives of the first higher school of artistic design, Bauhaus in Germany, the largest representatives of which were I. Itten, V. Kandinsky, P. Klee, etc. In Russia, effective teaching methods were developed by representatives of VKHUTEMAS: A. Rodchenko, V. Tatlin and many others. However, in the future this position is practically not supported by the activities of constructivists and rationalists in the field of architecture.
From the middle of the 20th century. The applied sciences of color have received great development. Research by psychologists, physiologists, and ergonomists has proven that color is the most important component of the human environment and life. This stimulated the emergence of a huge amount of research and experiments in this area.
In connection with the formation and success of the humanities in the 20th century. color has become the object of research in various areas of humanitarian thought in such areas as linguistics, psychology, cultural studies, and art history. Linguistics studies issues related to the word formation of color names, the peculiarities of color semantics and the vocabulary of color terms, and the categorization of colors. In the psycholinguistic aspect, issues related to the symbolic, subtextual nature of color in the language of fiction are studied. In cultural studies, special attention is paid to the issues of semantics and symbolism of color in various cultures. In aesthetics, color is considered as an aesthetic phenomenon that contributes to the achievement of harmony and beauty. In psychology, the effect of color on physiological and emotional states and the psychodiagnostic capabilities of color tests are studied. For art criticism, it is of interest to study the patterns of color structure, models of color combinations in the fine arts: color harmony, coloring, color contrasts. Within the framework of humanitarian thought, special mention should be made of a number of original theories specifically devoted to the study of color: B. A. Bazyma’s theory of the relationship between color and psyche, N. V. Serov’s theory of chromatism, P. V. Yanshin’s psychosemantics of color.
Today, the leading domestic specialist in the field of architectural coloristics is A. V. Efimov, Doctor of Architecture, Head of the Design Department of the Moscow Architectural Institute. Already in the late 1970s, realizing the urgent need of architects for knowledge in color science, he developed and introduced the discipline “Architectural Coloristics” into the MArchI curriculum.
Research in recent years has made it possible to significantly correct the views of the 20th century. on the mechanisms of vision, in particular the mechanisms of color perception. A new scientific direction has emerged related to the ecology of the visual environment and beauty - video ecology, developed in Russia on the basis of many years of studying the mechanisms of visual perception in health and pathology by V. A. Filin.
Original taken from aversin in Basics of color science and coloristics
I made a note on coloring for myself, so as not to forget. I tried to reduce it as much as possible, so it turned out to be a lot smart words. The outline is not complete, but somehow I can’t get around to finishing it. If anyone wants to add something, don't hesitate.
Color is the result of the interaction of three components: light source, object And observer. The observer perceives the wavelengths of light emitted by the light source and modified by the object.
Light, human visible is a small part of the light spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
Light waves themselves have no color, but different wavelengths are associated with specific colors.
Color order unaltered- from short-wave range (violet) to long-wave range (red) or vice versa. Wavelengths slightly longer than red light occupy the infrared (IR) range. Waves shorter than violet are the ultraviolet (UV) range.
Items on their own have no color, he appears only when they lighting.
A person perceives two types of color: color of the glowing object(color of light or additive color) and color of light reflected from an object(pigment color or subtractive color).
Basic or primary colors are colors that can be mixed to obtain all other colors and shades. Mixing type ( additive or subtractive) defines the primary colors.
Additional or complementary colors (located opposite each other on the color wheel) are pairs of colors that when mixed additively produce white, and when mixed subtractively they produce gray or black. For RGB colors, CMY will be complementary (and vice versa). Each color can be contrasted not with one contrasting (complementary) color, but nearby a couple, which forms it.
The given scheme of primary colors only works for computer graphics systems. Traditional artists the main colors are considered red, yellow and blue. Colors obtained by mixing primary colors are called composite(green, orange, purple). The sum of the composite colors will produce brown.
Additive mixing- (from the English add - add, i.e. addition to black of other light colors) or RGB(Red, Green, Blue) is a color synthesis method in which the primary colors are additive red, green and blue. In this system lack of flowers gives black colors adding all colors — white. The choice of the main three colors is determined by the physiology of the retina of the human eye.
Subtractive mixing(from the English subtract - subtract, i.e. subtraction colors from a common beam of reflected light) or CMY(Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) is a color synthesis method in which the primary colors are subtractive cyan, magenta and yellow. The color model is based on the absorption properties of the ink. In this system lack of flowers gives white color (white paper), and mixing all colors- conditionally black(in fact, printing inks, when mixed with all colors, give a dark brown, and to give a truly black shade, add black key ink - Key color). It has a small color gamut compared to RGB.
The RGB and CMYK color models are theoretically additional to each other, and their spaces are partially overlap.
CIE LAB color model (or Lab). In this model, any color is determined brightness"L" (Luminance) and two chromatic components: parameter “a” (varies from green before red) and parameter “b” (varies from blue before yellow). Colors developed within this model will look the same both on screen and when printed, regardless of the type of playback device. Possesses the largest color gamut.
Color properties:
Color tone or shade ( Hue) - a set of color shades, similar with the same spectrum color.
Saturation (Saturation) - degree fadedness.
Lightness (Lightness) — degree of closeness of color to white.
Brightness (Brightness) — degree of closeness of color to black.
Chromatic colors - all colors except achromatic. They have all three properties.
Achromatic(“colorless”) colors - white, shades of gray and black. The main property is lightness.
Spectral colors are seven key colors of the spectrum.
Non-spectral colors (colors, not included in the color spectrum) - This shades of gray, colors mixed with achromatic colors (for example: pink, like a mixture of red and white), brown And purple colors(Magenta).
Itten color wheel:
The main theoretical aspects of scientific color science and coloristics are considered: physical factors influencing the perception of color by the human visual apparatus; psychological and physiological impact of the color of the surrounding natural and anthropogenic environment; problems of color harmonization and targeted use of the capabilities of color as a means artistic expression in fine arts and architectural design. Are given practical recommendations to create a color solution for an architectural exterior and interior project.
For undergraduate students studying the disciplines of the block "Architectural Design", and master's students studying the disciplines "Painting" and "Color Science" in the direction of "Architecture". It may be useful for students and specialists in fields in which practical activities involve the use of color.
Physical factors, creating the phenomenon of color perception.
The influence of various light sources and light-air environment on color perception.
Modern science explains the phenomenon of color perception by the ability of human consciousness to process into color sensations the impact on the visual apparatus of streams of radiant energy emitted by various sources. From the source, radiant energy spreads in all directions in the form of a stream of special particles - photons, which have different energies due to different oscillation frequencies. Streams of photons with different oscillation frequencies also have different electromagnetic wavelengths, while the oscillation frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional. In a narrow range with wavelengths from 380 to 760 nm, these radiations are perceived by the visual apparatus as visible light of various colors, and the mixture of all these radiations (full spectrum) is perceived as white light. Thus, in nature there is no actual color as a physical phenomenon, but there are properties of material objects that cause conscious visual sensations.
In physiology and psychology, color is a qualitative subjective characteristic of electromagnetic radiation in the optical range, determined on the basis of a conscious visual sensation and depending on a number of physical, physiological and psychological factors.
Introduction
Lecture 1. Physical factors that create the phenomenon of color perception. The influence of various light sources and light-air
environment on color perception
Lecture 2. Color spectrum. The color wheel as the basis for a graphic representation of a color system. Laws of color mixing. Additive and subtractive color mixing. Primary and secondary colors
Lecture 3. Basic characteristics of color - hue, saturation, lightness. Basic subjective (psychological)
and objective (psychophysical) characteristics of color
Lecture 4. Systematics and classification of flowers. Color systems. Color atlases
Lecture 5. Colorimetric method of describing colors. Color coordinate systems (CCS). Electronic models color spaces. Electronic color management systems
Lecture 6. Psychophysiological properties of color
Lecture 7. Color associations and color preferences.
Color as an indicator of style and aesthetic orientation of society
Lecture 8. The phenomenon of color culture. Symbolism of color. The use of associative qualities of color in iconic color systems
Lecture 9. Types of color contrasts
Lecture 10. Color composition. Color harmony, color scheme, color scheme
Lecture 11. Basic principles of the theory of color harmony and typology of color harmonization
Lecture 12. Analysis of initial data and generation of material for a preliminary design of a coloristic architectural solution
exterior
Lecture 13. Analysis of initial data and generation of material for a preliminary design of interior color solutions
Bibliography
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"UFA STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND SERVICE"
(“UGUES”)
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Dolomatov M.Yu., Shulyakovskaya D.O., Kismereshkin S.V., Eremina S.A.
METHODOLOGICAL MANUAL FOR PERFORMING LABORATORY WORK IN THE COURSES “COLORISTICS”, “COLORISTICS”
RIO UGUES
UDC 677.027.001.5(035)
M.Yu. Dolomatov, D.O. Shulyakovskaya, S.V. Kismereshkin, S.A. Eremina Methodological manual for performing laboratory work in the courses “Color Science”, “Coloristics”. Toolkit. Ufa: RIO Ufimsk. state University of Economics and Service, 2015 – 56 p.
The methodological manual provides guidance on performing laboratory work in the courses “Color Science” and “Coloristics” for university students in such specialties as chemical technology, design, computer graphics and computer design, printing, textile industry, dye and pigment technology. Laboratory work is devoted to the practical development of the basic laws of optics and color theory. The methodological manual includes brief theoretical basis on the study of color measurement systems and recommendations for conducting studies of painted objects, textile materials, printed products, analysis of contrast and achromatic color limits.
Reviewers |
SHAPIRO S.V., DR. technical sciences, |
Professor of the Department of Physics
Dolomatov M.Yu., 2015
Ufa State University of Economics and Service, 2015
Laboratory work No. 1. CHECKING GRASSMAN'S FIRST LAW USING A GRAPHIC EDITOR. COLORIMETRIC SYSTEMS RGB AND XYZ ON SAMPLES OF PRINTING PRODUCTS... 4
Laboratory work No. 2. ACHROMATIC LIMITS OF COLOR.................................... |
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Laboratory work No. 3. STUDY OF OPTICAL CONTRAST BY |
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COLOR, BRIGHTNESS, SATURATION.................................................... ........................ |
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Laboratory work No. 4. CALCULATION OF COLOR CHARACTERISTICS |
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TEXTILE MATERIALS IN THE XYZ COLORIMETRIAL SYSTEM .. 18 |
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Bibliography................................................ ........................................................ .......... |
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Questions to prepare for the test................................................................. ...................................... |
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Topics for abstracts........................................................ ........................................................ ......... |
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Annex 1. |
Color graph (locus) of the XYZ system for equal-energy |
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source E ..................................................... ........................................................ ...................... |
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Appendix 2. |
Color circle................................................ ......................................... |
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Appendix 3. |
Color graph (locus) of the XYZ system.................................................... ... |
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Laboratory work No. 1. CHECKING GRASSMAN'S FIRST LAW USING A GRAPHIC EDITOR. RGB AND XYZ COLORIMETRIC SYSTEMS ON SAMPLES OF PRINTING PRODUCTS
Goal: Check Grassmann's first law. Explore RGB and XYZ colorimetric systems
1. Determine the color compositions of the object under study using the Microsoft Paint graphic editor.
2. Determine the brightness of colors using the Microsoft Paint graphic editor.
Brief theory
Grassmann's laws
As a result of the study of additive color mixing by the great German mathematician G. Grassmann, the founder of modern algebra, three laws of color formation were formulated in 1856.
First law. Any four colors are linearly related, although there are an unlimited number of linearly independent sets of three colors (triads). In other words, each color can be expressed through three linearly independent colors, and the number of triads of linearly independent colors is infinitely large.
Linearly independent colors are three colors, each of which cannot be obtained by mixing the other two.
In this laboratory work, linearly independent colors F1, F2, F3 will correspond to red (R - red), green (G - green) and blue (B - blue) colors, respectively. In our case, law (1.1) can be written:
also a continuous change in the component colors.
This law makes it impossible for any separate color to exist that is not directly adjacent to the colors of the mixed radiations.
Third law. The color of the mixture depends only on the colors of the components being mixed and does not depend on their spectral compositions.
The component colors of triads can also be complex, but this does not play a role in the formation of a complex color. From this law it follows: if each of two colors mixes with a third, then regardless of the spectral composition of the radiation of these two colors, the resulting color in both cases will be the same.
Exceptions to Grassmann's laws:
1. Not possible for colors of different lightness and saturation.
2. It is not feasible in powerful monochromatic radiation, for example, in laser radiation.
3. This cannot be done if the surface of the material reacts chemically with dyes.
4. This cannot be done if the fluxes of added radiation cause photochemical changes in the surface of the materials.
5. This cannot be done if the dyes or pigments chemically interact with each other. Grassmann's laws have a physiological basis. Human color vision is related to
the presence of three types of cells - cones in the retina of the fundus. These cones contain pigments whose spectral sensitivity maxima correspond to 450 nm (blue), 550 nm (green) and 630 nm (red). All diverse colors are perceived by a person through mixing the radiation of these three components in various proportions. For example, to obtain the color orange, it is not necessary to reproduce its tone - a wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is enough to create a total spectrum of radiation that excites the cones of the retina in the same way as the color orange.
Grassmann's laws are the theoretical basis of modern colorimetric and computer color measurement systems.
RGB colorimetric system
The RGB color model describes emitted colors and is the basis for computer color systems. There are three basic radiations - red, green, blue
(from English, German red, rot - red; green, grun - green; blue, blau - blue, light blue).
In the RGB model, all colors are expressed as the result of additive mixing of red, green and blue in varying proportions. The RGB color system (1931) uses Maxwell's triangle (Fig. 2.1). Maxwell's triangle is an equilateral triangle, at the vertices of which lie color streams corresponding to the primary colors.
Properties of Maxwell's triangle of the RGB system:
1. The vertices of the triangle correspond to the three primary RGB colors.
2. At the vertices of the triangle there are sources of red, green and blue radiation with the following characteristics: R =700.1 nm, G =546.1 nm, B = 435.8 nm. In this case, the red color is highlighted by a red filter from the spectrum of a tungsten incandescent lamp; green corresponds to the e line in the spectrum of a mercury lamp; blue - g lines in the spectrum of a mercury lamp.
3. All colors that can be obtained by mixing primary colors, in accordance with Grassmann's law, lie on the sides and inside the Maxwell triangle.
4. The white area on the triangle corresponds not only to the center of gravity of the triangle, but also to the equal contributions of green, blue and red.
Rice. 1. - Maxwell's triangle as the basis of the RGB system
Maxwell's color triangle allows you to quantify the effect of mixing any dyes and any monochromatic and complex color rays. The largest area that can be covered in a triangle for image transmission corresponds to computer monitors and color television. The lowest color transfer capability corresponds to dyes, printing inks and textile dyes. In personal computers, one octet of 8 bits (R, G, B) is used to transmit color, the values of which are designated by integers from 0 to 255 inclusive. All popular design packages are built on this basis of color reproduction, in particular, Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw, etc. For example, black corresponds to a combination of numbers - (0,0,0), white -
(255, 255, 255), bright orange (242, 105, 53), rich yellow (222, 211, 33).
Calculation of the color module m=R+G+B and three-color chromaticity coordinates in the system
r = R/m; g = G/m; b = B/m. |
A disadvantage of the RGB system is that the system's addition curves have negative sections (negative amounts of primary colors), which creates difficulties in calculating a number of spectral colors. In this regard, in 1931, the CIE adopted the XYZ system as a color measurement standard, which did not have the disadvantages of the RGB system.
XYZ colorimetric system
Conventional color coordinates X, Y, Z were introduced. Unlike the chromaticity curves of the RGB system coordinates, all color coordinates were positive, so color calculations were simplified.
Instead of Maxwell's triangle, the XYZ system uses a transformed color triangle with a more convenient shape to represent color (Figure 2).
Rice. 2 - Color graph (locus) of the XYZ system for an equal-energy source E. It is possible to switch from the RGB colorimetric system to XYZ and back
according to the transformation known in colorimetry:
colorimetric system is sRGB. The conversion of color coordinates from the sRGB colorimetric system to XYZ is presented below:
Basic color characteristics
According to modern ideas, color is determined by:
the ratio of the reflective and absorbing ability of the surface and the chemical nature of the pigments with which the surface is coated;
properties of radiation sources;
human color vision.
Despite the versatility of color phenomena, in modern colorimetry chromatic colors are characterized by three main colorimetric properties: hue (λ), purity or saturation (P), brightness (B) or lightness (L). Brightness is defined to characterize the color of luminous bodies, lightness (or relative brightness) - to characterize the color of non-luminous bodies. Let's look at these values in more detail.
A color similar to that of any complex radiation can be obtained by mixing a certain monochromatic radiation with white light.
The color tone of a chromatic color is the wavelength of such monochromatic radiation, the mixing of which in a certain proportion with white provides a color that is visually identical to the given one. . The color tone can be determined using the color wheel (using a protractor), and the color tone will be expressed in degrees.
Purity (saturation) is a colorimetric value that shows the degree of expression of a color tone in a given color. Color purity P as a percentage equal to the ratio of the brightness of monochromatic radiation ( In λ ) to the sum of the brightness of monochromatic radiation and the beam white light ( V B):
WB |
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Monochromatic colors have the greatest purity (100%); achromatic colors have a purity of zero.
Work plan
1. In the group folder, create your own folder named “Last Name First Name”. Copy the Van Gogh painting to a new folder according to your option.
2. Open the Microsoft Paint graphic editor: Start→All Programs→Accessories→Paint.
3. Open a file with a picture: Menu→Open→Specify the path to your folder.
4. Determine the color composition in the painting.
Select any color, hover the mouse cursor over it and left-click. Open Palette from the menu. In the Palette window, click the “Define Color” button. Click the “Add to set” button (see Fig. 3).
5. Enter the values opposite the items Red (R), Green (G), Blue (B) and Brightness (Br-Brightness) into the summary table. The values of R, G, B and will be the contribution of each color to
the resulting color according to Grassmann's first law. Otherwise, these values are called
color coordinates.
7. Convert color coordinates from the sRGB system to the XYZ system. For the transition we use the known relations:
X = 0.4124R+0.3576G + 0.1805B;
Y = 0.2126R + 0.7152G+ 0.0722B;
Z = 0.0193R +0.1192G + 0.9505B.
Pivot table example
Name |
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Note: the image should be made with colored pencils or paints; Name the flowers yourself.
Rice. 3 - Palette window
10. Repeat points No. 4-No. 7 for 8-10 for the colors that, in your opinion, are the main ones in this picture.
Structure of the report on the work performed: laboratory work number, topic, purpose, tasks, brief theory, summary table with data for 8-10 main colors of the picture, conclusions from laboratory work.
Control questions
1. By adding what colors from the triad red-green-blue can be obtained yellow? You can use a palette to answer.
2. How, in your opinion, can the skills acquired in this laboratory work in determining the composition of color using a graphic editor be applied in practice?
3. What are the red, green, and blue coordinates for color #5 from your table?
Laboratory work No. 2. ACHROMATIC LIMITS OF COLOR
Purpose: Study of the achromatic limit of color
Tasks:
1) Study of the achromatic limit of black using the Microsoft Paint graphic editor.
2) Study of the achromatic limit of white color using the Microsoft Paint graphic editor.
Brief theory
Color depends on surface properties and radiation properties. The color radiation that is absorbed by the surface is called the primary one. The color of the reflected radiation is called complementary. The primary color is related to the secondary color in the same way as absorption and reflection. All colors are divided into two groups - chromatic and achromatic. Achromatic - all black and white colors. Gray colors are formed by mixing black and white in various proportions. In gray, the opposite optical characteristics of white and black colors are compensated, therefore, it is a neutral, equilibrium color. There may be an infinite number of options gray. The trained human eye perceives up to 300 shades of gray from this infinite variety.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the incident radiation flux J is divided into four component fluxes - absorbed J A, reflected J R, transmitted J T, and for optically inhomogeneous bodies, scattered J S:
J=JA + JR + JT + JS |
Based on relation (1), we will consider various cases of the formation of achromatic color.
All radiation incident from the radiation source is absorbed by the body (black color).
In this case, the input light flux is equal to the absorbed one (J=J A), the remaining fluxes are negligible - and the condition is satisfied:
JR +JT +Js =0 .
Since we perceive with our eyes the light emitted or reflected by the body, such a body will be invisible. This is the case of a completely black body. There is a paradox that completely black bodies should be invisible. To make an object invisible, it must be coated with absolutely black dye, but this is already in the realm of science fiction. However, such bodies exist in nature. In the 90s In the 20th century, using an X-ray telescope, astrophysicists discovered such completely black objects and called them “black holes.” Black holes are very massive, but small in volume stars with enormous density that attract light (draw rays into themselves). Such objects can be detected indirectly - they are visible only in the X-ray range of the spectrum, due to atoms falling on them (atoms falling on such an object emit X-rays). In the earthly world around us, there are apparently no absolutely black objects. All bodies that absorb more than 90% of light appear black. For a long time, black velvet was considered the blackest material on Earth, absorbing 99.6% of light. According to the Washington Post on February 20, 2008, a technical breakthrough has been made in the creation of ultra-black optical materials. A group of researchers from Polytechnic University Rice (USA) under the leadership of Sean-Yu Lin and Pulikel