Zoning is the basic pattern of the geographical envelope. Geographical zoning

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Many physical-geographical phenomena in the geographic envelope are distributed in the form of strips extended along parallels, or at some angle to them. This property of geographical phenomena is called zonality (the law of geographical zonality). Ideas about natural zonality arose among ancient Greek scientists. So, in the 5th century. BC. Herodotus and Eudonix noted five zones of the Earth: tropical, two temperate and two polar. A great contribution to the doctrine of natural zonation was made by the German geographer Humboldt, who established the climatic and plant zones of the Earth (“Geography of Plants”, 1836). In Russia, ideas about geographic zoning were expressed in 1899 by Dokuchaev in the book “The Doctrine of Natural Zones. Horizontal and vertical soil zones." Professor Grigoriev has conducted research on the causes and factors of zoning. He came to the conclusion about the important role of the relationship between the radiation balance and the amount of annual precipitation (1966).

Currently, it is believed that natural zoning is represented by

component zoning;

landscape zoning.

All components of the geographic envelope are subject to the World Law of Zoning. Zoning is noted for climatic indicators, plant groups and soil types. It also manifests itself in hydrological and geochemical phenomena, as a derivative of climatic and soil and plant conditions.

The zonality of physical-geographical phenomena is based on the pattern of solar radiation, the arrival of which decreases from the equator to the poles. However, this distribution of solar radiation is superimposed on the atmospheric transparency factor, which is azonal, since it is not related to the shape of the Earth. Air temperature depends on solar radiation, the distribution of which is influenced by another azonal factor - the properties of the earth's surface - its heat capacity and thermal conductivity. This factor leads to an even greater violation of zoning. The distribution of heat on the Earth's surface is also greatly influenced by ocean and air currents, which form heat transfer systems.

The distribution of precipitation on our planet is even more complex. They are, on the one hand, zonal in nature, and on the other hand, they are associated with the position of the territory in the western or eastern part of the continents and the height of the earth's surface.

The combined effect of heat and moisture is the main factor that determines most physical and geographical phenomena. Since the distribution of moisture and heat remains oriented in latitude, all climate-related phenomena are oriented in latitude. As a result, a latitudinal structure is formed on Earth, called geographic zonation.

The clarity is manifested in the distribution of the main climatic characteristics: solar radiation, temperature and atmospheric pressure, which leads to the formation of a system of 13 climate zones. Plant groups on Earth also form elongated stripes, but in a more complex configuration than climatic zones. These are called vegetation zones. Soil cover is closely related to vegetation, climate and relief, which allowed V.V. Dokuchaev to identify genetic types of soils.

In the 50s of the 20th century, geographers Grigoriev and Budyko developed Dokuchaev’s law of zonation and formulated the periodic law of geographic zonation. This law establishes the repetition of the same type geographical zones inside the belts - depending on the ratio of heat and moisture. Thus, forest zones are found in the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical and temperate zones. Steppes and deserts are also found in different geographical zones. The presence of similar zones in different zones is explained by the repetition of the same ratios of heat and moisture.

Thus, a zone is a large part of a geographical zone, which is characterized by the same indicators of radiation balance, annual precipitation and evaporation. At the beginning of the last century, Vysotsky proposed a humidification coefficient equal to the ratio of precipitation to evaporation. Later Budyko for justification periodic law introduced an indicator - the radiation dryness index, which is the ratio of the incoming amount of solar energy to the heat consumed for the evaporation of precipitation. It has been established that there is a close connection between geographic zones and the amount of solar heat input and the radiation dryness index.

Geographic zones are internally heterogeneous, which is primarily associated with azonal atmospheric circulation and moisture transfer. Taking this into account, sectors are identified. As a rule, there are three of them: two oceanic (western and eastern) and one continental. Sectority is a geographical zonality, which is expressed in a change in the main natural indicators along longitude, that is, from the oceans inland to the continents.

Landscape zoning is determined by the fact that the geographic envelope, in the process of its development, acquired a “mosaic” structure and consists of many natural complexes of unequal size and complexity. According to the definition of F.N. Milkova PTC is a self-regulated system of interconnected components, functioning under the influence of one or several components that act as a leading factor.

Vertical zonality

Altitudinal zone - part of vertical zoning natural phenomena and processes related only to mountains. Due to the natural decrease in air temperatures with height, the ratio of heat and moisture, runoff conditions, relief formation, soil and vegetation cover and associated animals change.

Climbing a high mountain is accompanied by a change in several belts of vegetation, as when moving from the equator to the poles. Unlike natural areas, there are few animals here, but many birds of prey (the largest bird of prey is the condor. It soars over the Andes at an altitude of up to 7 thousand m). In every type environment there is its own community of animals and plants even within the same natural zone, but on different continents ( natural complex). Simultaneously with zonal ones, azonal factors also operate, associated with the internal energy of the Earth (relief, height, continental configuration).

Anywhere globe zonal and azonal factors act simultaneously. The set of altitudinal zones in the mountains depends on the geographical position of the mountains themselves, which determines the nature of the lower zone, and the height of the mountains, which determines the nature upper tier. The sequence of altitudinal zones coincides with the sequence of changes in natural zones on the plains. But in the mountains, belts change faster; there are zones that are characteristic only of mountains - subalpine and alpine meadows.

The altitudinal zonation of mountain systems is diverse. It is closely related to latitudinal zones. With altitude, climate, soil and vegetation cover, hydrological and geomorphological processes are transformed, the factor of slope exposure, etc. sharply increases. With changes in the components of nature, natural complexes change - high-altitude natural zones are formed. The phenomenon of changing natural-territorial complexes with altitude is called altitudinal zonality, or vertical altitudinal zonality.

The formation of types of altitudinal zonation of mountain systems is determined by the following factors:

> Geographical location of the mountain system. The number of mountain altitudinal belts in each mountain system and their altitudinal position are mainly determined by the latitude of the place and the position of the territory in relation to the seas and oceans. As you move from north to south, the altitudinal position of natural belts in the mountains and their composition gradually increase.
> Absolute height of the mountain system. The higher the mountains rise and the closer they are to the equator, the greater the number of altitude zones they have. Therefore, each mountain system develops its own set of altitude zones.
> Relief. The relief of mountain systems (orographic pattern, degree of dissection and evenness) determines the distribution of snow cover, moisture conditions, preservation or removal of weathering products, affects the development of soil and vegetation cover and thereby determines the diversity of natural complexes in the mountains. For example, the development of leveling surfaces contributes to an increase in the areas of altitudinal belts and the formation of more homogeneous natural complexes.
> Climate. This is one of the most important factors shaping altitudinal zonation. As you rise into the mountains, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind direction and strength, and weather types change. Climate determines the nature and distribution of soils, vegetation, fauna, etc., and, consequently, the diversity of natural complexes.

Slope exposure. It plays a significant role in the distribution of heat, moisture, wind activity, and, consequently, weathering processes and the distribution of soil and vegetation cover. On the northern slopes of each mountain system, altitude zones are usually located lower than on the southern slopes.

The position, changes in boundaries and natural appearance of altitudinal zones are also influenced by human economic activity.

Already in the Neogene on the plains of Russia there were latitudinal zones almost similar to modern ones, but due to the warmer climate of the zone arctic deserts and tundra were absent. In Neogene-Quaternary times, significant changes in natural zones occur. This was caused by active and differentiated neotectonic movements, climate cooling and the appearance of glaciers on the plains and mountains. Therefore, natural zones shifted to the south, the composition of their flora (increased deciduous boreal and cold-resistant flora of modern coniferous forests) and fauna changed, the youngest zones were formed - tundra and arctic desert, and in the mountains - alpine, mountain-tundra and nival-glacial belts

During the warmer Mikulino interglacial period (between the Moscow and Valdai glaciations), natural zones shifted to the north, and altitudinal zones occupied more high levels. At this time, the structure of modern natural zones and altitudinal zones is formed. But due to climate change in the late Pleistocene and Holocene, the boundaries of zones and belts shifted several times. This is confirmed by numerous relict botanical and soil finds, as well as spore-pollen analyzes of Quaternary deposits.

In the mountains, as you go up, the amount and composition of solar radiation changes, the amount of precipitation decreases and Atmosphere pressure. Changes in climatic conditions lead to changes in the same direction in geomorphological processes, vegetation composition, soil characteristics and the nature of the animal world. This makes it possible to identify vertical belts in mountain systems.

Vertical zones are similar to horizontal zones in the sense that they change when moving upward in approximately the same order (starting from the latitudinal zone in which the mountainous country is located) in which latitudinal zones change when moving from the equator to the poles. But vertical belts are not exact copies of similar latitudinal zones, since they are influenced by local conditions (relief ruggedness, differences in slope exposures, mountain heights, history of area development, etc.).

Despite some similarities in vertical zonation in different mountain systems, the latter manifests itself differently on different continents and geographical latitudes. The degree of expression of vertical zonation, i.e. the number of vertical belts, their height, continuity of extension, floristic and faunal composition depend on the position of the mountain system, its latitude, the direction of the ridges, the degree of dissection, the history of formation and some other reasons.

Let us demonstrate this using the example of two mountain systems (Verkhoyansk Range and Greater Caucasus).

a) The Verkhoyansk ridge, or rather a whole system of ridges, is several times larger in size than the system of ridges of the Greater Caucasus. Despite this, the Verkhoyansk Range has a less diverse nature, i.e., within its boundaries there is a smaller number of vertical belts than in the Greater Caucasus, and similar belts of these mountain systems differ sharply in the nature of vegetation, soils and wildlife.

The Verkhoyansk Range is located in the temperate zone, in the taiga zone, in the northeast of Siberia. The climate here is very harsh. Near the ridge there is a “pole of cold”; priming all year round frozen; piercing winds blow; the amount of precipitation is insignificant (200--300 mm per year).

The slopes of the ridge from the base to a height of approximately 1 thousand m are covered with taiga, in the northern part sparse, consisting of Dahurian larch (Larix dahurica). The latter is adapted to living in the harshest conditions, on frozen ground. Podzolic soils are developed under the taiga. The taiga belt is replaced by a belt of subalpine bushes (at podzolic soils), the most common of which is dwarf cedar (Pinus pumila) - a creeping species of cedar pine. Above 1000-1500 m, the alpine belt begins, that is, mountain lichen-crushed stone tundra with moss (Cladonia), partridge grass (Dryas punctata), cinquefoil (Potentilla nivea), etc. Such is the sparse vegetation of the Verkhoyansk Range.

b) The Greater Caucasus is located on the border of temperate and subtropical climate zones. This alone suggests a variety of natural conditions in the Greater Caucasus in the form of a significant number of vertical belts and their differences on the northern and southern slopes. In addition, the vertical zonation is complicated here by the increase in dryness from west to east. All these factors greatly diversify the vertical zonation in the Greater Caucasus and lead to its differences on the northern and southern slopes, as well as in the west and east.

When climbing the mountains from the Rioni lowland, we will encounter the following vertical belts:

1. Belt of relict Colchis forests, developed mainly on podzolic-yellow soils. The basis of the forest here is made up of broad-leaved species: Hartwis oak (Quercus hartwissiana), Georgian oak (Quercus iberica), noble chestnut (Castanea satwa), oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), hornbeam (Carpinus caucasica). Evergreen shrubs are developed in the undergrowth: Pontic rhododendron ( Rhododendron ponticum), laurel (Laurus nobiles), etc.
2. From a height of 600 m to a height of about 1200 m stretches a belt of beech forests (dark and humid), consisting mainly of oriental beech, joined by other broad-leaved species. In this belt, mountain forest brown soils are developed.
3. Even higher stretches a belt of coniferous and coniferous-deciduous forests, consisting of Caucasian spruce (Picea orientalis), Caucasian fir. (Abies nordmanniana) and eastern beech; Under them, mountain-podzolic and mountain-forest brown soils are developed.
4. From an altitude of about 2000 m, the subalpine belt begins - tall grass meadows and thickets of Caucasian rhododendron (Rhododendron caucasicum) on mountain meadow soils. The alpine belt stretches even higher, where alpine meadows developed on mountain-meadow soils alternate with almost bare rocks and screes. And finally, the last is the nival belt - the area of distribution of eternal snow and glaciers.

The northern slope of the Western Caucasus differs from the southern slope in the absence of a belt of Colchis forests, which is replaced here by a belt of oak forests, consisting mainly of oak (Quercus petraca). The remaining vertical belts are somewhat different from the above in their floristic composition.

A completely different character of vertical zonality is observed in the Eastern Caucasus. At the foot of the slope there are deserts and semi-deserts of the Kura Lowland on grey-earth, brown and chestnut soils; deserts and semi-deserts in the extreme east rise into the mountains to a height of 800 m. Their main representative is Hansen's wormwood (Artemisia Hanseniana). Above is a belt of steppes, on mountain chernozems and dark chestnut soils, which gradually tapers out as you move west.

Higher up (at an average altitude of 500-1200 m) there is a belt of oak forests with an admixture of other broad-leaved species (Georgian oak, Caucasian hornbeam) on brown soils. Where forests have been cut down, upland xerophytic vegetation (shrub), consisting mainly of pine trees (Paliurus spina), is widely developed.

At an altitude of 1200-2000 m there is a belt of beech and beech-hornbeam forests, which at the upper border of the forest give way to thickets of eastern oak (Quercus macranthera). There are no coniferous forests in the Eastern Caucasus. Brown forest soils.

At an altitude of 2000-2500 m, subalpine meadows are developed, which differ from those of the Western Caucasus in their strong steppe and low grass stand (high-mountain steppes). Higher up they turn into alpine meadows. The soils are mountain meadow. And finally, at maximum altitudes, the nival belt is developed, which has an insignificant distribution in the Eastern Caucasus.

The northern slope of the Eastern Caucasus (including Dagestan) is distinguished by the absence of deserts at the foot, the greater xerophytic nature of high-mountain meadows (high-mountain steppes on mountain meadow-steppe soils) and the greater development of mountain xerophytic vegetation.

Studying the contents of the paragraph provides the opportunity to:

Ø to form an idea of the geographical shell as a natural body;

Ø deepen knowledge about the essence of the periodic law of geographic zoning;

Ø deepen understanding of the peculiarities of the natural conditions of individual geographical zones of the Earth.

Features of the geographical shell. The geographic shell was formed simultaneously with the development of the Earth, therefore its history is part of the general history of the development of the Earth. ( What is the geographic envelope? What components of the geographic envelope have you already studied in your geography and biology course?)

All components of the geographical envelope are in contact, interpenetration and interaction . There is a continuous exchange of matter and energy between them. Life is concentrated in the geographical shell.

In its development, the geographic envelope went through three stages. The beginning of the first - inorganic - can be considered the appearance of the atmosphere. At the second stage, a biosphere was formed in the geographic shell, transforming all the processes that had previously taken place in it. At the third – modern – stage, human society appeared in the geographical shell. Man began to actively transform the geographical envelope.

Due to the fact that the geographical envelope of the Earth represents the environment for human life and activity, and the human impact on nature increases every year, its composition includes: sociosphere With technosphere And anthroposphere.

The sociosphere (from the Latin societas - society) is a part of the geographical envelope, including humanity with its inherent production and production relations, as well as the part of the natural environment developed by man.

Technosphere (from the Greek technе - art, skill) is a set of artificial objects within the geographical envelope of the Earth, created by man from the substance of the surrounding nature. The increasing anthropogenic pressure on the biosphere, which has caused the inclusion of elements of the technosphere and other means and products of human activity in the biosphere, contributes to the transition of the biosphere to a qualitatively new state.

The anthroposphere (from the Greek anthropos - man) embraces humanity as a collection of organisms. The life of any organism in all forms of its manifestation is possible only with constant interaction with the outside world and the continuous flow of energy into the body from the outside. All types of living beings ultimately use the same energy - the energy of the Sun, but the forms of manifestation and use of this energy are different.

Geographical zoning is expressed in the natural change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and the distribution of geographical zones within these zones. The largest latitude-zonal unit of the geographic envelope is the geographic belt, which is distinguished by its characteristics radiation balance And general atmospheric circulation. Within the belt, the climate is relatively homogeneous, which is reflected in other components of nature (soils, vegetation, fauna, etc.) ( Remember what geographical zones are distinguished on Earth? What is their total number?).

The shape and area of the belts depend on many factors, the main of which are: the proximity of oceans and seas, relief, and sea currents. In geographical zones there are geographical (natural) zones. Their release is associated, first of all, with the uneven distribution of heat and moisture on the Earth's surface. ( Why?) They are often elongated in the latitudinal direction (Africa), but under the influence of the configuration of the continents and orographic factors they can have a meridional direction ( North America).

V.V. Dokuchaev and L.S. Berg made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of geographic zoning. V.V. Dokuchaev based his doctrine of natural zones on the proposition that each natural zone (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert and other zones) represents a natural complex in which the components of living and inanimate nature are interconnected and interdependent. This served as the basis for the classification of natural zones developed by L. S. Berg.

Further development the law of geographical zoning became periodic law of geographical zonation, which was formulated in 1956 by famous geographers A.A. Grigoriev and M.I. Budyko. The essence of the periodic law is that geographical zones at different latitudes have a number of properties that are periodically repeated (for example, the zone of forest-steppe and savannas, deciduous forests of the temperate zone and forests of the humid subtropics, etc.) According to this law, the differentiation of the geographical envelope is based lie: the amount of absorbed solar energy (the annual value of the radiation balance of the earth’s surface); amount of incoming moisture (annual precipitation); the ratio of the radiation balance to the amount of heat required to evaporate the annual amount of precipitation (radiation dryness index). The value of the dryness index in different zones ranges from 0 to 4-5. The periodicity is also manifested in the fact that the dryness index value, close to unity, is repeated three times between the pole and the equator (Fig....).

These conditions are characterized by the highest biological productivity of landscapes (with the exception of equatorial forests (hylea).

Thus, geographic zonality is expressed in the natural change of geographic zones from the equator to the poles and the distribution of geographic zones within these zones. The very list of names of geographical zones emphasizes their symmetrical position in relation to the equator. The share of the area of each geographical zone in relation to the total area of the globe is clearly shown in the figure (Fig...).

Along with zonality, azonality or regionality is distinguished. Azonality means the spread of any geographical phenomenon without connection with the zonal characteristics of a given territory. The main reasons for azonality are the geological structure, tectonic features, the nature of the relief, etc. In the presence of these factors, large areas of the geographical envelope acquire individual unique features, which complicates its structure and disrupts the zonation scheme. Azonality is most often and clearly manifested in the mountains and foothills.

Features of the Earth's geographic zones. Equatorial belt occupies 6% of the total land area of the Earth. It is represented by equatorial forests ( Using the map, determine the boundaries of the equatorial belt)

A feature of the equatorial belt is the exceptionally high intensity of all natural processes(geomorphological, biochemical and others), as a result of which a powerful weathering crust is formed. The reason for the high intensity of the processes is, first of all, the constantly hot and humid climate.

Subequatorial belts occupy about 11% of the total land area. ( Using a map, determine the location of the subequatorial belts). Most of the area of the subequatorial belts, like the equatorial belt, falls on the World Ocean. Here the belts are clearly expressed and can be identified by trade wind currents. The belts of both hemispheres in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are shifted northward compared to their position on land.

An essential feature of the subequatorial belts is the variable circulation of the atmosphere, when there is a seasonal change from equatorial air to tropical air, and vice versa, which determines the presence of dry and wet (rainy) seasons.

In the subequatorial belts, two natural zones are distinguished: savanna(savannas and woodlands), which is the main area, and the zone variable-humid forests- narrow, transitional from gils to savannas.

The eastern margins of the continents within these belts are under the influence of monsoons and trade winds.

Tropical zones. In total, they occupy 35% of the Earth's total land area. (Locate them on the map). In these latitudes, dry and hot air dominates both on the continents and on the oceans. According to natural features within tropical zones there are zones: forests, savannas And woodlands, semi-deserts and deserts (Using the atlas, determine the boundaries of the natural zones of the tropical zones).

Subtropical zones occupy an area equal to 15% of the total land area (Determine their location on the map and compare their distribution along longitude in the northern and southern hemispheres). The peculiarity of the nature of these belts is determined by their geographical location and is expressed in the predominance here tropical(summer) and moderate(in winter) air masses. In the western oceanic regions of these zones (see map) the nature is Mediterranean with dry summers and wet winters. The eastern oceanic territories (see map) have a monsoon climate with high summer humidity. Inland areas have an arid climate. In general, natural zones are distinguished in subtropical zones: forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

The natural conditions of the subtropical zones are favorable for human life, so these territories have long been developed and populated. Here the forests are heavily cleared, and in their place are fields, plantations of cotton, tea, citrus fruits, etc.

Temperate zones characterized by the asymmetry of their location in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (Use the map to determine the location of the belts in the northern and southern hemispheres). The large extent of the territory from east to west and from north to south causes a wide variety of natural conditions. According to natural features, the temperate zone is divided into moderately warm, dry, and moderately cold, damp. The first identifies natural zones: semi-deserts and deserts, steppes, forest-steppes; in the second: the zone of taiga (coniferous forests), broad-leaved forests, small-leaved and mixed forests. ( Using the atlas, determine the boundaries of the natural zones of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere)

Subarctic belt located on the northern edges of Eurasia and North America. Its southern border is determined largely by the influence of sea currents. In Europe, under the influence of a warm current, the belt occupies a narrow strip of land and is located north of the Arctic Circle, while in the northeastern part of Eurasia, where there is no effect of this current, it expands and reaches 60° N. w. In North America (Hudson Bay region), under the influence of cold currents, its boundary drops to 50° N. sh., i.e. to the latitude of Kyiv. The southern boundary of the belt approximately corresponds to the 10°C isotherm of the warmest month of the year. This is the limit of the northern distribution of forests. Permafrost is widespread, which in some places begins at a depth of 30 cm. Natural zones: tundra, forest-tundra and woodlands.

Subantarctic belt almost entirely located in oceanic spaces. Only a few islands represent land. The largest of them are Falkland, Kerguelen, South Georgia and others. The islands have oceanic tundra conditions, high humidity, strong winds, poor moss-lichen vegetation. On some islands, tundra can be traced up to 50° S. w.

Arctic And Antarctic belts (Determine their geographical location) although they are located in territories with different underlying surfaces - the first is on oceanic expanses, the second is on the continent of Antarctica, but they common features more than different: low temperatures in winter and summer ( Determine the temperature of the warmest month), strong winds, lack or little vegetation, etc. The Arctic tundra zone, Arctic and Antarctic deserts are distinguished.

Questions and tasks

The doctrine of geographical zoning. A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by specific homogeneity various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such phenomena as zonality and azonality of the geographical shell of the Earth. According to modern concepts, geographic zonality means a natural change in physical-geographical processes, complexes, and components as one moves from the equator to the poles. That is, zonation on land is a consistent change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and the regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

In recent years, with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographic zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographic zones.

The doctrine of geographic zonality is of great importance for regional and regional studies analysis. First of all, it allows us to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and farming. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the economy’s dependence on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with nature, and in many cases, dependence on it, continue to be preserved. The continuing important role of the natural component in the development and functioning of society and its territorial organization is obvious. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of a person’s adaptation to the territory and determines the nature of environmental management.

Geographic zoning actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in zoning, and, consequently, regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zonality provides enormous material for country and regional comparisons and thereby contributes to the elucidation of country and regional specifics and its causes, which ultimately is the main task of regional studies and regional studies. For example, the taiga zone in the form of a trail crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, and Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, and living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies and country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

In a word, the task of regional and regional studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory (its theoretical basis is the doctrine of geographic zonality), but also to identify the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural and civilizational factors. nym, etc. reasons.

Loop method

Loop method. The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are characterized by cyclicity. The cycle method is one of the new ones and therefore, as a rule, is personalized, that is, it bears the names of its creators. This method has undoubted positive potential for regional studies. Identified N.N. Kolosovsky energy production cycles, unfolding in certain territories, made it possible to trace the regional specifics of their interaction. And it, in turn, was projected onto certain management decisions, i.e. on regional policy.

The concept of ethnogenesis L.N. Gumilyov, also based on the method of cycles, allows us to penetrate deeper into the essence of regional ethnic processes.

The concept of large cycles, or “long waves” N.D. Kond-Ratiev is not only a tool for analyzing the current state of the world economy, but also has a great predictive charge not only in relation to the development of the world economy as a whole, but also its regional subsystems.

Models of cyclical geopolitical development (I. Wallerstein, P. Taylor, W. Thompson, J. Modelski, etc.) explore the process of transition from one “world order” to another, changes in the balance of power between great powers, the emergence of new conflict zones, centers of power . Thus, all these models are important when studying the processes of political regionalization of the world.

20. Program-target method. This method is a way to study regional systems, their socio-economic components and at the same time an important tool for regional policy. Examples of targeted comprehensive programs in Russia are the presidential program “Economic and social development Far East and Transbaikalia for 1996–2005”, “Federal program for the development of the Lower Angara region”, adopted in 1999, etc.

The program-target method is aimed at solving complex problems and is associated with the development of long-term forecasts socially economic development country and its regions.

The program-target method is actively used to solve regional policy problems in most countries of the world. In Italy, as part of regional policy, the first law on “growth poles” was adopted in 1957. In accordance with it, several large enterprises were built in the south of Italy (a region that lags far behind the industrialized North), for example, a metallurgical plant in Tarante. “Growth poles” are also being created in France and Spain. The core of Japan's regional programs is the goal of developing infrastructure associated with increasing exports.

The development and implementation of targeted programs is a characteristic feature of the policy of the European Union. Examples of these are, for example, the Lingua and Erasmus programs. The goal of the first of them is to eliminate the language barrier, the second is to expand student exchange between the countries of the Union. In 1994–1999 Within the EU, 13 target programs were financed - “Leader II” (social development of rural areas), “Urban” (elimination of urban slums), “Reshar II” (coal industry), etc.

Related information.

A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by the specific homogeneity of various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such phenomena as zonality and azonality of the geographical envelope of the Earth.

According to modern concepts, geographic zonality means a natural change in physical-geographical processes, complexes, and components as one moves from the equator to the poles. That is, zonation on land is a consistent change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and the regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

The reasons for zonation are the shape of the Earth and its position relative to the Sun. The zonal distribution of radiant energy determines the zonality of temperatures, evaporation and cloudiness, and salinity surface layers sea water, the level of its saturation with gases, climates, weathering and soil formation processes, flora and fauna, hydraulic networks, etc. Thus, the most important factors determining geographic zonation are the uneven distribution of solar radiation across latitudes and climate.

Geographical zonation is most clearly expressed on the plains, since it is when moving along them from north to south that climate change is observed.

Zoning is also evident in the World Ocean, not only in the surface layers, but also on the ocean floor.

The doctrine of geographical (natural) zoning is perhaps the most developed in geographical science. This is explained by the fact that it reflects the earliest patterns discovered by geographers, and by the fact that this theory forms the core of physical geography.

It is known that the hypothesis about latitudinal thermal belts arose in ancient times. But it began to turn into a scientific direction only at the end of the 18th century, when naturalists began to take part in circumnavigation of the world. Then, in the 19th century, a major contribution to the development of this doctrine was made by A. Humboldt, who traced the zonation of vegetation and fauna in connection with climate and discovered the phenomenon of altitudinal zonation.

However, the doctrine of geographical zones in its modern form arose only at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. as a result of research by V.V. Dokuchaeva. He is generally recognized as the founder of the theory of geographical zonation.

V.V. Dokuchaev substantiated zonality as a universal law of nature, manifested equally on land, sea, and in the mountains.

He came to understand this law from studying soils. His classic work “Russian Chernozem” (1883) laid the foundations of genetic soil science. Considering soils to be a “mirror of the landscape”, V.V. Dokuchaev, when identifying natural zones, named the soils characteristic of them.

Each zone, according to the scientist, is a complex formation, all components of which (climate, water, soil, soil, flora and fauna) are closely interconnected.

L.S. made a significant contribution to the development of the doctrine of geographic zoning. Berg, A.A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, S.V. Kalesnik, K.K. Markov, A.G. Isachenko et al.

The total number of zones is determined in different ways. V.V. Dokuchaev identified 7 zones. L.S. Berg in the middle of the 20th century. already 12, A.G. Isachenko - 17. In modern physical-geographical atlases of the world, their number, taking into account subzones, sometimes exceeds 50. As a rule, this is not a consequence of some errors, but the result of being carried away by overly detailed classifications.

Regardless of the degree of fragmentation, the following natural zones are represented in all options: arctic and subarctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, temperate forests, taiga, mixed temperate forests, temperate deciduous forests, steppes, semi-steppes and deserts of the temperate zone, deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropical and tropical zones, monsoon forests, subtropical forests, forests of tropical and subequatorial zones, savanna, moist equatorial forests.

Natural (landscape) zones are not ideally regular areas that coincide with certain parallels (nature is not mathematics). They do not cover our planet in continuous stripes; they are often open.

In addition to zonal patterns, azonal patterns have also been identified. An example of this is altitudinal zonation ( vertical zoning), depending on the height of the land and changes in the heat balance with height.

In the mountains, the natural change in natural conditions and natural-territorial complexes is called altitudinal zonation. It is also explained mainly by climate change with altitude: per 1 km of rise, the air temperature decreases by 6 degrees C, air pressure and dust levels decrease, cloudiness and precipitation increase. A unified system of altitudinal zones is formed. The higher the mountains, the more fully expressed the altitudinal zonation. The landscapes of altitudinal zones are basically similar to the landscapes of natural zones on the plains and follow each other in the same order, with the same zone located higher, the closer the mountain system is to the equator.

There is no complete similarity of natural zones on the plains and vertical zones, since landscape complexes change vertically at a different pace than horizontally, and often in a completely different direction.

In recent years, with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographic zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographic zones. The doctrine of geographic zonality is of great importance for regional and regional studies analysis. First of all, it allows us to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and farming. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the economy’s dependence on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with nature, and in some cases, dependence on it, continue to be preserved. The continuing important role of the natural component in the development and functioning of society and in its territorial organization is obvious. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of a person’s adaptation to the territory and determines the nature of environmental management.

Geographic zoning actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in zoning, and, consequently, regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zonality provides enormous material for country and regional comparisons and thereby contributes to the elucidation of country and regional specifics and its causes, which, ultimately, is the main task of regional studies and regional studies. For example, the taiga zone in the form of a trail crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, and Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, and living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies and country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

Loop method

The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are characterized by cyclicity. The cycle method is one of the new ones and therefore, as a rule, is personalized, that is, it bears the names of its creators.

Known, for example, are the methods of energy production cycles by N.N. Kolosovsky, natural resource cycles I.V. Komar (1960–1970s), natural-social cycles by Yu.G. Saushkina (1970–1980s), etc.

All these cycles identified by scientists include certain technological chains. But at the same time, they also have a fairly pronounced spatial, regional aspect, since they are deployed in a certain territory. The regional specificity of the interaction of cycles, naturally, has an impact on regional policy and is a factor in justifying certain management decisions. So, N.N. Kolosovsky, based on his concept, conducted in the late 1940s. regionalization of the country, identifying 30 regional production-territorial combinations and determining possible prospects for their development.

The method of cycles was used in his concept of ethnogenesis by L.N. Gumilev. Having analyzed the history of more than 40 super-ethnic groups, he compiled a “curve” of ethnogenesis, highlighting seven of its cycles (phases, stages): rise, acmatic, breakdown, inertial, obscuration, regeneration, relict. For each cycle of ethnogenesis, scientists determined periods of development (from 150 to 300 years), character traits passionary tension of the ethnic system, on which the behavior of the ethnic group depends. Concept by L.N. Gumilev, has undoubted methodological potential in the study of regional ethnic processes.

In socio-economic geography, economic sciences, geopolitics, the concept of N.D. has received great recognition. Kondratiev, which is called the concept of large cycles, or “long waves”.

Concept of N.D. Kondratiev is closely connected with the theory of world economy. Much has been written about the cyclical nature of its development even before N.D. Kondratiev, including K. Marx. But this meant small and medium cycles.

An analysis of the development of the world economy was given by N.D. Kondratiev in the 1920s. to the conclusion about the existence of long-term, approximately half-century cycles of economic conditions. Their change, according to Kondratiev, is determined by three main elements - scientific and technological progress, the introduction of new forms of production organization and corresponding geographical and territorial shifts.

The first big cycle – 1790–1840. - was directly related to the industrial revolutions of that time, primarily in England. Subsequent radical changes in production laid the foundations for the second (1840–1890) and third (1890–1940) great cycles. Continuing this line, the fourth cycle (1940–1980) scientists, followers of N.D. Kondratiev, associated with the scientific and technological revolution, and the fifth (since 1980) - with the transition of the most advanced countries to the post-industrial stage of development.

Each of its cycles N.D. Kondratiev divided it into two large phases, approximately 25 years each - a growth phase and a stagnation phase. Therefore, their graphic representation really resembles peculiar waves.

“Long waves”, or large cycles, N.D. Kondratiev’s technologies manifest themselves in one way or another in all countries, covering not only production, but also other spheres of human activity. Therefore, its concept is not only a tool for analyzing the current state of a particular society, country, region, but also has a great prognostic charge.

After the opening of N.D. Kondratiev’s long-term cycles of development of the world economy, many researchers began to develop the topic of cycles of world political development by analogy.

Thus, I. Wallerstein (modern geohistorian, sociologist) defined three cycles of hegemony, for each of which it is necessary to pass through three phases - world war, hegemony of one of the great powers, decline. The first, according to Wallerstein, cycle of hegemony - Dutch - lasted from 1618 to 1672, the second - British - from 1792 to 1896, the third - American - began in 1914.

British scientist P. Taylor also agrees with the presence of cyclicality in the geopolitical world process. According to Taylor, the world hegemony of one country is a rare phenomenon: it happened only three times - the hegemony of the Netherlands in the 17th century, the British hegemony in the mid-19th century, and the hegemony of the USA in the mid-20th century. True geopolitical hegemony, according to this scientist, lies not in the conquest of colonial spaces, but in a world monopoly in production, trade, and finance.

American political scientists J. Modelski and V. Thompson proposed the concept of long world political cycles. They define them as a sequence of the rise and fall of great powers. Global economic processes, according to scientists, are associated in time with long political cycles - “leadership cycles”. The change of such cycles periodically changes the structure of the world political system, promoting the emergence of new great powers and the geographical zones of their influence. Global leadership, in accordance with the concept of long cycles of development of world geopolitics by J. Modelski and W. Thompson, is based on such factors as mobile military forces, an advanced economy, an open society, and responding to world problems through innovation. J. Modelski and V. Thompson believe that there should be a deep internal connection between the Kondratiev cycles and the long cycles of world politics that they identified. They do not talk about the strict determination of politics from economics, but draw attention to the likelihood of the existence of self-organizing mechanisms of two types of world development cycles.

The logical development of the ideas of Modelski and Thompson allows us to conclude that states playing the role of world leader also serve as the initial sources of Kondratieff waves, i.e. world political leadership is closely related to economic leadership.

The connection between “their” hegemonic cycles and the Kondratieff cycles of the world economy is also emphasized by I. Wallerstein. In the textbook V.A. Kolosova and N.S. Mironenko considers the dual Kondratiev-Wallerstein model, analyzing which the authors draw a number of conclusions, including that “geopolitical processes are in an inextricable, although not strictly deterministic, connection with world economic processes.”

As you can see, all models of cyclical geopolitical development explore cyclical modifications in the geopolitical system of the world, the process of transition from one “world order” to another, changes in the balance of power between great powers, the emergence of new zones, regions of conflict, centers of power. Thus, all these models are important when studying the processes of global political regionalization.

Balance methods

Balance methods are a set of mathematical calculations that allow one to study, first of all, the processes of functioning and development of complex socio-economic, socio-political systems - dynamic systems, with established flows of resources and products (“input-output”, “production-consumption”, “import–export”, natural resources–population density, radicalism–conservatism, etc.).

These methods occupy an intermediate position between statistical methods and modeling.

In economic sciences, socio-economic geography, the method is used to compile balances of labor resources, fuel and energy, monetary income and expenses of the population, foreign trade etc.

A special place in the above-mentioned sciences is occupied by intersectoral and interdistrict balances. The first characterizes the production and distribution of the total social product by industry, the second - the ratio of production, consumption and territorial distribution of the product by region.

In our country, the model of inter-industry balance of production and distribution of products was substantiated in the 1930s. Leningrad economists V.V. Novozhilov and L.V. Kantorovich. In world practice, a similar model is known as “input-output” by V. Leontiev, a Nobel Prize laureate and former compatriot of ours (in the 1920s, V. Leontiev emigrated to the USA).

Balance sheet models integrate well with other types of economic and mathematical models. They, according to Yu.N. Gladky and A.I. Chistobaev, built in more than 80 countries and are suitable for short- and long-term forecasting.

Balance of power is a key concept in the theory of political realism. According to realists, the most effective means preserving peace is precisely the balance of power, arising not only from the clash of national interests, but also from the unity of cultures, mutual respect for each other’s rights and agreement on basic principles. Within this school of international relations research, a distinction is made between a simple balance of power, known as a bipolar system, and a complex one, involving several power centers (a multipolar, or multipolar, system).

HELL. Voskresensky, inclined to believe that the theories of “power balance” and “balance of power” in principle still belong to the past, proposes to analyze the dynamics of interstate relations on the basis of a balance of interests and from the point of view of multifactor equilibrium. That is, the concept of multifactor equilibrium developed by him in international relations also relies on the principles of the balance method (See: Political science in Russia: smart search and reality, p. 413–440).

The balance method is widely used in demography. It allows you to select optimal relationships between various structures of the demographic complex. For example, the relationship between the number of labor resources and the development of labor-intensive industries, the relationship between jobs and the number of unemployed, between the availability natural resources, necessary for the normal life of people (water, energy, etc.) and population density, etc.

The balance sheet method underlies the internal policy of any state aimed at ensuring political stability and stability: they are impossible without maintaining a balance of political, religious, national-ethnic, regional, social, etc. interests both in the country as a whole and in its individual regions.

Currently, the fact of zonal differentiation of the natural environment is obvious. V.V. Dokuchaev is credited with establishing the law of geographic zoning (1899), which was confirmed by numerous studies (Berg, 1930, 1947; Grigoriev, 1954, 1966; Isachenko, 1965, 1980; Gvozdetsky, 1976, 1979; Milkov, 1970, and DR-) Under the term "zoning" is understood as “a regular change in all geographical components and landscapes along latitude (from the equator to the poles) - the most well-known geographical pattern.

Primary The reason for zonality is the uneven distribution of solar radiation across latitude due to the spherical shape of the Earth. The angle of incidence of solar rays naturally changes in the latitudinal direction, due to which the amount of solar energy arriving per unit of the earth's surface changes in the same direction. Thus, the presence of zonality on Earth is entirely due to planetary-cosmic, or astronomical, reasons.

However, planetary-cosmic reasons create only the basic prerequisites for the emergence of zonality” (Isachenko, 1965, pp. 48-49). The decisive importance of solar radiation in the formation of geographical zones was also recognized by S. V. Kalesnik: “Due to the zonal distribution of solar radiant energy on Earth, the following are zonal: air, water and soil temperature, evaporation and cloudiness, precipitation, baric relief and wind systems, air properties masses, climates, the nature of the hydrographic network and hydrological processes, features of geochemical processes, weathering and soil formation, types of vegetation and life forms of plants and animals, sculptural landforms, to a certain extent types sedimentary rocks finally, geographical landscapes, united in this regard into a system of landscape zones" (Kalesnik, 1970, pp. 91-92). However, V.V. Dokuchaev drew attention to the fact that not only direct solar radiation is involved in the formation of natural zones radiation, but also important elements climate, how advective warmth and moisture. He even established that each natural zone is characterized not only by a certain amount of heat and annual amount of precipitation, but also by a certain ratio between them (Fig. 90-101). Later, A. A. Grigoriev and M. I. paid great attention to this issue Budyko (1956, 1974, etc.). Considering. the problem of geographic zoning, A. A. Grigoriev states: “Changes in the structure and development of the geographical environment (land) across belts, zones and subzones are based primarily on changes in the amount of heat, as the most important energy factor, the amount of moisture, the ratio of the amount of heat and the amount of moisture "(Grigoriev, 1954, p. 18) (Fig. 102). M. I. Budyko adheres to the same view on zoning. It can be concluded that the main factor in the formation of geographical zones is climate. To what extent this conclusion is true, we will try to confirm this with two examples:

1) natural zonality of the planet Venus and 2) paleozonality of the Earth.1. On Vner there are no natural zones at all, although more heat is supplied than to the ground. The absence of natural zonality on Venus is due to the atmosphere, i.e., the climatic factor. Conditions 2.

The phenomenon of paleozonality on planet Earth is used here to prove the relative independence of the geographic shell from the tectonosphere, the boundary between which is formed by a horizon of constant temperature in the earth's crust (Lyubimova, 1968). The evolution of the tectonosphere, and, accordingly, the macrorelief of the earth's surface proceeds extremely slowly. It takes millions of years to rebuild the tectonosphere and large landforms. Modern mountain ranges are of this age. The main elements of the geographical envelope - geographical zones - can be formed over thousands of years, that is, in a time 1 thousand times less than it takes for the formation or complete destruction of a mountain range or its large parts. Therefore, if we analyze the structure of any large uplift (ridge or individual hill), then in a vertical section we must distinguish two parts: the upper, that is, the weathering crust, and the lower, the tectonosphere. The thickness of the upper part of the section is meters, the lower part is hundreds of kilometers. With a strong and long-term climate change (for example, from warm to cold), a restructuring of the zonal structure of the geographical shell and, in particular, its mineral substrate - the weathering crust - will occur. Geographical (landscape) zones will seem to move along the earth's surface, while macroforms of relief and their corresponding tectonic structures will remain motionless. This allows us to conclude that the geographic envelope does not have “deep roots” in the lithosphere. The above fully applies to vertical (high-altitude) zones.

High-altitude zones occupy smaller spaces than plain (latitudinal) zones, and seem to repeat them: mountain glaciers - the polar zone, mountain tundra - tundra, mountain forests - forest zone, etc. The lower part of the mountains usually merges with the latitudinal zone, within which they are located. So, for example, the taiga approaches the foothills of the Northern and Middle Urals, a desert stretches at the foot of some mountains of Central Asia, which lie in the desert zone, and in the Himalayas Bottom part mountains covered with tropical jungle, etc. Largest quantity altitudinal zones (from glaciers at the tops of mountains to tropical forests at the foot) are observed in high mountains located near the equator.
Although high-altitude zones are similar to plain zones, the similarity is very relative.
Indeed, the amount of precipitation in mountains usually increases with altitude, while in the direction from the equator to the poles it generally decreases. In mountains, the length of day and night does not change with altitude as much as when moving from the equator to the poles. In addition, in the mountains the complexity and climatic conditions: here the steepness of the slopes and their exposure play a significant role (northern or southern, western or eastern slopes), special wind systems arise, etc. All this leads to the fact that the soils, vegetation, and fauna of each altitude zone acquire special features that distinguish it from the corresponding plain zone.
The differences in natural zones on land are most clearly reflected by vegetation. Therefore, most zones are named according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. These are the zones of temperate forests, forest-steppes, steppes, tropical rainforests, etc.
Geographic zones can also be traced in the oceans, but they are less pronounced than on land, and only in the upper layers of water - to a depth of 200-300 m. Geographic zones in the oceans generally coincide with thermal zones, but not completely, since the water is very mobile , sea currents constantly mix it, and in some places transfer it from one zone to another.
In the World Ocean, as on land, there are seven main geographical zones: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate and two cold. They differ from one another in temperature
temperature and salinity of water, the nature of currents, vegetation and fauna (see page 146).
Thus, the waters of cold zones have low temperature. They contain slightly less dissolved salts and more oxygen than the waters of other zones. Vast areas of seas are covered thick ice, and the flora and fauna are poor in species composition.
In temperate zones, surface layers of water heat up in summer and cool in winter. Ice in these zones appears only in places, and even then only in winter. Organic world rich and varied. Tropical and equatorial waters are always warm. Life is abundant in them.

Natural areas

The location of ecological communities on Earth has a pronounced zonal structure associated with changes in thermal conditions (primarily the flow of solar energy) at different latitudes. Natural zones are elongated in the latitudinal direction and replace each other when moving along the meridian. Own, altitudinal, zoning is formed in mountain systems; In the world's oceans, the change in ecological communities with depth is clearly visible. Natural areas are closely related to the concept of habitat - the area of distribution of a given type of organism. Biogeography studies the patterns of distribution of biogeocenoses on the Earth's surface.

The earth's land is divided into 13 main latitude zones: Arctic and Antarctic, subarctic and subantarctic, northern and southern temperate, northern and southern subtropical, northern and southern tropical, northern and southern subequatorial, equatorial.

Let's consider the main biogeographical zones of land. The area around the poles is covered by cold Arctic (in the Southern Hemisphere - Antarctic) deserts. They are characterized by an extremely harsh climate, extensive ice sheets and rocky deserts, undeveloped soils, and the scarcity and monotony of living organisms. Animals of the Arctic deserts are mainly associated with the sea - these are the polar bear, pinnipeds, and in Antarctica - penguins.

To the south of the Arctic deserts is the tundra (Finnish tunturi “treeless hill”); in the Southern Hemisphere, tundra is represented only on some subantarctic islands. The cold climate and soils underlain by permafrost determine the predominance of mosses, lichens, herbaceous plants and shrubs. To the south, small trees (for example, dwarf birch) appear, and the tundra gives way to forest-tundra. The fauna of the tundra is quite homogeneous and scarce: reindeer, arctic foxes, lemmings and voles, as well as extensive bird colonies. Mosquitoes are abundant among insects. Most vertebrates leave the tundra with the onset of winter (migrate or fly away to warmer regions). Near the seas and oceans, tundra and forest-tundra give way to a zone of oceanic meadows.

To the south of the forest-tundra, temperate zone forests begin; first coniferous (taiga), then mixed, and finally broad-leaved (the southern temperate zone almost completely covers the world's oceans). Temperate forests occupy vast areas in Eurasia and North America. The climate here is already much warmer, and species diversity several times more than in the tundra. On podzolic soils, large trees dominate - pine, spruce, cedar, larch, and to the south - oak, beech, birch. The most common animals are carnivores (wolf, fox, bear, lynx), ungulates (deer, wild boars), songbirds, and certain groups of insects.

The temperate forest zone is replaced by forest-steppe and then steppe. The climate is becoming warmer and drier; among the soils, chernozems and chestnut soils are most widespread. Cereals predominate, among animals there are rodents, predators (wolf, fox, weasel), birds of prey (eagle, hawk), reptiles (vipers, snakes), beetles. Big percentage The steppes are occupied by agricultural land. Steppes are common in the Midwest of the United States, Ukraine, the Volga region and Kazakhstan.

The next zone after the steppe is the zone of temperate semi-deserts and deserts (Middle and central Asia, western North America, Argentina). The desert climate is characterized by low precipitation and large daily temperature fluctuations. As a rule, there are no bodies of water in deserts; Only occasionally the deserts are crossed by large rivers (Huang He, Syrdarya, Amu Darya). The fauna is quite diverse; most species are adapted to living in arid conditions.

As you approach the equator, the temperate zone is replaced by subtropics. In the coastal strip ( north coast Mediterranean Sea, southern coast of Crimea, Middle East, southeastern USA, extreme south of South Africa, southern and western coasts of Australia, North Island of New Zealand) evergreen subtropical forests are widespread; far from the sea there is forest-steppe (in North America - prairies), steppe and deserts (the latter in South Australia, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in Iran and Tibet, Northern Mexico and the western part of South Africa). Animal world subtropics is characterized by a mixture of temperate and tropical species.

Tropical rain forests (South Florida, West Indies, Central America, Madagascar, Eastern Australia) are largely plowed and used for plantations. Large animals have been practically exterminated. Western Hindustan, Eastern Australia, the Parana Basin in South America and South Africa are areas of more arid tropical savannas and woodlands. The most extensive zone of the tropical belt is deserts (Sahara, Arabian Desert, Pakistan, Central Australia, Western California, Kalahari, Namib, Atacama). Vast areas of pebble, sand, rocky and salt marsh surfaces are devoid of vegetation. The fauna is sparse.

Subequatorial rain forests are concentrated in the Ganges Valley, southern Central Africa, the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea, northern South America, northern Australia and the islands of Oceania. In drier areas they are replaced by savannas (Southeastern Brazil, Central and Eastern Africa, the central regions of Northern Australia, Hindustan and Indochina). Typical representatives of the animal world of the subequatorial belt are ruminant artiodactyls, predators, rodents, and termites.

The equatorial belt (Amazon basin, Central Africa, Indonesia) is located closest to the equator. The abundance of precipitation and high temperatures have led to the presence of evergreen moist forests here (in South America such a forest is called hylea). The equatorial belt holds the record for the diversity of animal and plant species.

Altitudinal zone

Similar patterns are observed in the change of biogeographic zones in the mountains - altitudinal zones. It is caused by changes in temperature, pressure and air humidity with increasing altitude. There is, however, no complete identity between the altitudinal, on the one hand, and latitudinal, on the other hand, belts. Thus, the alternation of polar day and night inherent in the typical tundra is deprived of its high-mountain counterparts in lower latitudes, as well as alpine meadows.

The most complex spectra of altitudinal zones are characteristic of the high mountains located near the equator. Toward the poles, the levels of altitudinal zones decrease, and their diversity decreases. The spectrum of altitudinal zones also changes with distance from the seashore.

The same natural areas are found on different continents, but forests and mountains, steppes and deserts have their own characteristics on different continents. Plants and animals that have adapted to exist in these areas also differ. natural areas. In biogeography, there are six biogeographic regions:

Palearctic region (Eurasia without India and Indochina, North Africa);

Nearctic region (North America and Greenland);

Eastern region (Hindustan and Indochina, Malay Archipelago);

Neotropical region (Central and South America);

Ethiopian region (almost all of Africa);

Australian region (Australia and Oceania).

Living organisms inhabit not only land, but also the oceans. The ocean is home to about ten thousand species of plants and hundreds of thousands of animal species (including more than 15 thousand species of vertebrates). Plants and animals inhabit two very different regions of the world's oceans - the pelagic (surface layers of water) and the benthic (sea floor). Latitudinal zones are well expressed only in the near-surface waters of the ocean; With increasing depth, the influence of the sun and climate decreases, and the water temperature approaches +4 °C typical for the ocean thickness.

The pelagic zone - the water column of oceans, seas and lakes - is divided into vertical zones according to illumination (well-lit, twilight and devoid of light) and according to the distribution of life (surface, transitional and deep-sea). Pelagic organisms are characterized by similar adaptations that provide buoyancy. They are divided into passively floating on the surface of the water (pleiston: sargassum algae, siphonophores, etc.) or in its thickness (plankton) and actively floating organisms that can withstand the force of the current (nekton: fish, squid, water snakes and turtles, penguins, cetaceans, pinnipeds, and large crustaceans). Nekton is distinguished by an elongated body shape with the least drag on water when moving.

Plant pelagic organisms (phytoplankton: mainly green algae and diatoms) are the main producers of organic matter in the ocean. Phytoplankton are most common in places where nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates are carried out from the depths or run off from land. The need for solar energy limits their distribution to a depth of 50–100 m. Zooplankton (crustaceans, protozoa, jellyfish and ctenophores, larvae of various animals) can be found at greater depths. Tropical areas of the oceans, far from land, are the poorest in the number of species. The remains of pelagic organisms participate in the formation of bottom sediments.

The population of the bottom - benthos - is also distributed across deep zones. Among plant organisms, brown, red, diatoms and green algae are common; Flowering plants (reeds, reeds, water lilies, elodea and others) are also found near the shores of freshwater bodies of water. Marine zoobenthos is represented mainly by foraminifera, sponges, coral polyps, polychaetes, sipunculids, mollusks, crustaceans, bryozoans, echinoderms, ascidians and fish. The inhabitants of shallow waters are especially numerous; their quantity can reach tens of kilograms per 1 m2 of surface. Freshwater zoobenthos is much poorer: mainly protozoa, annelids, mollusks, insect larvae and fish.

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