Geographical zones that it crosses. The essence of the concepts “geographical space”, “geographical space-time”, “cultural-geographical space”

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– an area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

Area– the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), vibrations atmospheric pressure(anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or zone)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographical landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large piece of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South– in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert– a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannas of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone of coniferous forests of the temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami is the Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographic location and other physical and economic geographic factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for normal functioning and ensuring the daily life of the population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction between people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of a country, including several administrative units, differing from others in features historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a favorable EGP, where preferential tax and customs regimes are established in order to attract foreign capital, special conditions pricing.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various areas and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic geographical position(EGP)- the position of the object in relation to other geographical objects that have economic significance for it.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people that has a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.

Lecture 3 Natural environment as a factor of regionalism

Plan

Zoning and azonality of nature Regionalization of individual elements and properties natural environment Classification of landscape (physiographic) units Regionalism of the World Ocean The main landscape zones of the world

The geographic envelope of the Earth (i.e., the earth's crust, lower parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, plant and soil cover, fauna) is extremely heterogeneous. This heterogeneity, or, as they say, regional differentiation, leads to the formation of a complex system of natural complexes of various ranks, into which the geographic envelope. To a first approximation, such complexes include continents and oceans, the natural specifics of which developed during the development of the planet; geographical zones formed on continents and oceans depending on the latitude of the area and the influx of solar radiation. In turn, within the continents and oceans, as well as within the geographic zones crossing them, the processes of regionalism depend on many factors, primarily on geotextural and morphostructural differences, on the characteristics of atmospheric circulation, etc.

Zoning and azonality of nature

The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such structural features of the geographical (landscape) shell of the Earth as zoning And azonalness.

The main reasons for zonation are clear and understandable - this is the shape of the Earth and its position relative to the Sun. The zonal distribution of radiant energy determines the zonality of temperatures, evaporation and cloudiness, pressure relief, wind systems, salinity of the surface layers of sea water, the level of its saturation with gases, climates, weathering processes and soil formation, flora and fauna, hydraulic networks, etc. Experts also note zoning of geochemical features of landscapes: iron is characteristic of the tundra and taiga, calcium - for steppes and deserts, sodium - for deserts, silicon and aluminum - for the humid tropics, etc.

The great Russian scientist and soil scientist made a huge contribution to the development of the doctrine of zonation. It was he at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. proposed a classification of natural zones of the world (later expanded and in-depth by S. Kolesnik, etc.), which included: boreal zone (tundra), northern forest, forest-steppe, steppe, dry steppes, aerial (deserts) and subtropical.

Of course, natural (landscape) zones are not ideally regular areas that coincide with certain parallels (nature, according to Dokuchaev, is not mathematics!). They do not cover our planet in continuous stripes and are often open, which once again indicates the extraordinary complexity of the mechanism of geographic zonation. At the same time, various kinds of violations or deviations of latitudinal zonality (i.e., manifestations of azonality) do not refute its universal significance. It’s just that the manifestation of any natural law is determined by specific conditions.

If the earth’s surface were ideally flat, homogeneous in the material composing it and did not consist of alternating continental protrusions and oceanic depressions, then natural zones stretching from west to east would replace each other in “concentric trails.” Due to the large differences in the physical properties of water and solids(intensive heat exchange of sea strata, different heat capacity and reflectivity, etc.) various air masses are formed - continental and marine. Are formed Various types air flow, one of which is, for example, monsoons, rushing from the ocean to warmer land in summer, and in the opposite direction in winter.

Azonality is promoted by the vertical zonality of the mountains. Thus, in North America, because of the Cordillera, landscape zones are sometimes elongated not in the latitudinal, but in the meridional direction. It is known that the basis of vertical zonation is the rapid decrease in temperature upward (similar to its decrease from the equator to the poles, but even faster). This phenomenon gives rise to a certain similarity between natural zones and vertical zonation. However, there is no complete similarity and cannot be, since landscape complexes change vertically at a different pace than horizontally, and often in a completely different direction. Finally, almost every mountainous country has its own spectrum of vertical zonation, which is determined by the exposure of the slopes, the length of the ridges, their relative position, etc.

The concept is widely used in geographical literature sectorus (or meridional) zoning, reflecting the natural change of plant communities, fauna and soil types depending on the distance from the ocean shores to the interior of the continents. In Fig. Figure 6 shows such a “cross” arrangement of landscape zones and sectors.

Regionalization of individual elements and properties of the natural environment

Such regionalization may be based on countless criteria. So, when studying thermal regime On Earth, spatial differentiation can be carried out depending on the distribution of solar radiation and temperature along parallels, the distribution of temperature in July, January (or any other month), heat balance individual areas of the planet, etc.; when studying regime and distribution of atmospheric moisture- depending on the conditions of condensation of water vapor, the amount of precipitation, the moisture balance of individual areas of the earth’s surface, etc.; when studying soil-forming process- depending on the general characteristics of soil formation factors, the rate of formation of soil organic matter, the characteristics of the movement and retention of substances in the soil, the characteristics of soil types, etc.

It is quite obvious that in each of these cases we are talking about homogeneous regions, territorial areas of which are saturated with signs of the same kind (although not necessarily of equal measures). Another thing - integral and complex regionalization, when we are talking, for example, about geographical landscapes, which include both the sum of elements and properties of the natural environment, and various territorial complexes of different scales.

Regionalism of the World Ocean

Despite the relative similarity of the physicochemical composition of oceanic strata, there are many other structural components (both natural and economic) that determine the regional mosaic nature of the ocean.

This is greatly facilitated by both its vertical and horizontal tiers. When vertical tiers usually distinguished:

1) surface layer, in direct contact with the troposphere. A zone of intense photosynthesis, a center of concentration of living matter (or, in the words of an outstanding geochemist, “concentrations of life”). The lower limits of the contact tier usually lie
at a depth of 150-200 m;

2) deep (pelagic) strata the World Ocean, characterized by relatively weakly expressed hydrodynamics, lack of light, constant temperature and salinity, much smaller volume of biomass, etc.;

3) ocean floor- i.e., the sphere of underwater landscapes along with the bottom layer of the water column.

In the case of horizontal tiers, the identified tiers are associated with the sphere of underwater landscapes, changing in accordance with the increase in depth:

1) continental shelf(littoral and sublittoral) - a leveled edge of the continent flooded by the sea, passing below into the continental slope with depths of no more than 150-200 m. Approximately 80% of the total benthos biomass is concentrated here (i.e., the totality of all organisms living on the ground and in the ground) World Ocean;

2) continental slope(bathial) - the layer next to the shelf, continuing to depths of m and characterized by the emergence of crystalline rocks, the complete absence of vegetation and
a sharp depletion of the animal world;

3) ocean bed(abyssal) - the most extensive part of the ocean floor (up to a depth of 6000 m), mostly silted, with extremely sparse biomass;

4) deep-sea trenches(ultra-abyssal) - from 6000 to 11000 m.
In Fig. Figure 8 shows the regionalization of the Atlantic Ocean bottom topography (with a detailed structure of the ocean floor).

There have been many attempts at comprehensive regionalization (including zoning) of the World Ocean with the allocation of special zones, provinces, and regions. Its implementation is fraught with great difficulties due to the virtual absence of “water forms” of the relief and weak differences in the physical and chemical properties of water in different water areas. Natural zoning of the World Ocean is usually carried out taking into account such “latitudinal” indicators as total radiation, radiation balance, evaporation costs, turbulent (i.e. vortex) exchange, internal heat exchange, average surface water temperature, salinity, precipitation, evaporation, moisture balance, etc.

Let us give an example of dividing the World Ocean into zones (St. Kolesnik,1970) depending on the properties of water masses.

1. Arctic seas zone, covering the Arctic Ocean. On the Atlantic side it is limited by the 70th parallel, on the side Pacific Ocean- 60th. The climate of the zone is harsh (especially between Taimyr and the Botfort Sea). Annual radiation balance
is no more than 20 kcal/cm2. The water temperature in the Arctic basin is from -1 to -2°C all year round, the salinity is 30-32%o. The average temperature of the coldest month within the water area is from -2 to -40°C, the warmest from 0 to +10°C.

2. northern temperate zone, sometimes called the “Arctic edge”, in the Atlantic Ocean it is located between 70 and 45 ° N. sh., in the Quiet - between 60 and 50° N. w. The zone is very heterogeneous in its structure, especially in the Atlantic, which, in particular, is associated with the influence of, on the one hand, the warm Atlantic Current, and on the other, the cold Labrador and East Greenland Currents. The annual radiation balance does not exceed 40 kcal/cm2, the average air temperature
in the coldest time of the year from -5 to +10°C, water 4-10°C, in the warmest month - 5-15 and 10-15°C, respectively. Salinity 33-35%o.

3. Circulation zone of northern trade wind currents contoured in the Atlantic Ocean 45-8° N. sh., in the Quiet - 50-8° N. sh., in the Indian Ocean is represented by the province of monsoons and monsoon currents. Within the zone, the Atlantic “ring” (North Trade Wind Current, Antilles, Gulf Stream, Gulf Stream “delta”, eastward drift, Canary Current) and the Pacific (North Trade Wind Current, Kuroshio, North Pacific, California) are quite clearly distinguished. The annual radiation balance is from 40 to 100 kcal/cm2. In the coldest months, the average air and water temperatures within the zone are 7-25 and 5-25°C, respectively, and in the warmest months - 15-25 and 16-25°C. Salinity - from 33 to 37.5% o.

Coral sea zone(the kingdom of coral forms - archipelagos, atolls, barrier and coastal reefs) is usually associated with a strip of development of inter-trade wind countercurrents between 8° N. w. And

6° S w. The annual radiation balance is more than 100 kcal/cm2. The average air temperature all year round is more than +25 °C, water temperature is 25-28 °C. Water salinity is below 35%o.

5. Circulation zone of southern trade wind currents is between 6 and
40° S w. and covers the waters of three “rings”: the Atlantic (South
trade wind current, Brazilian current, eastward drift, Benguela current);
Pacific (Southern Trade Wind Current, East Australian Current
drift, eastward drift, Peruvian, or Humboldt Current); indo-
ocean current (Southern Trade Wind Current, Mozambique Current, Cape
Agulhas, drift to the east, Western Australian). Annual radia
tion balance from 100 to 60 kcal/cm2. Average air temperatures in
the warmest months are from 15 to 28°C, in the coldest months - from 10 to 25°C.
Salinity, depending on the region, ranges from 34 to 37.5% o.

6. Sea Prairie Zone in the literature it is clearly outlined between 40
and 50° S. w. Chief and D.C. water - the current of the Western Winds
or Antarctic, framed from the south and north by zones of active
mixing water The annual radiation balance is 60-40 kcal/cm2.
An increase in water temperature is observed in a northerly direction from 10 to
15°C, salinity - up to 35% o. Air temperature in the coldest place
sycamore in different places from negative to +12°C, in the warmest -
8-12°C.

7. Middle zone Southern Ocean, bearing a clear imprint of transition
ness, extends south to the “last” zone 8 - the southern ice zone
twisted seas. The annual radiation balance is 40-20 kcal/cm2. Tempera
the water temperature rises from south to north up to 10°C, in the same direction
salinity increases. The average temperature in January is not higher than +8°С
happens, but July is always negative.

8. Southern Arctic Seas Zone covers the Antarctic Arctic
vatorii. Its northern border is in the area opposite Indian and Atlan
The 60th parallel serves as the Pacific Ocean, along
polar circle. The annual radiation balance is less than 20 kcal/cm2. Tempe
The water temperature is below zero both in winter and summer (with the exception of some
wide water areas). Water salinity is 33-37%. average temperature
the warmest month is not higher than +5°C, the coldest month is from 10 to -25°C.

There are numerous attempts in the literature natural resource And economic differentiation The World Ocean, highlighting fisheries, transport, oil and gas, economic, environmental and other regions.

Thus, based on the size of the catch of fish and seafood in the World Ocean, the following are distinguished: fishing regions(listed in descending order of catches in them and partially coinciding with FAO statistical regions): 1) south-eastern Pacific Ocean; 2) western part of the central Pacific Ocean; 3) northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean; 4) northeastern Pacific Ocean; 5) central-eastern and southeastern parts of the Atlantic Ocean: 6) northwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean; 7) Antarctica.

The main criteria for identifying transport regions of the World Ocean are the density of the network of sea and air routes, the volume of freight and passenger traffic along them, and the concentration of transport infrastructure on adjacent coasts. Among the most important transport regions of the world: 1) Atlantic (between 60 and 30° S); 2) Pacific (between 40 and 50° S); 3) Indian (between parallels 15 and 45° S); 4) the region of the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea.

Of course, such regionalization of the ocean, although it retains a close genetic connection with the natural environment, is based on taking into account production factors, so its analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter.

Main landscape zones of the world

IN training course Regional studies have neither the opportunity nor the need to examine in detail the physical-geographical regionalization of the globe, much less bring it to a high degree of granularity and detail. Let us dwell briefly on the characteristics of only such large-scale natural regions of the Earth as landscape (natureny) zones, noticeably changing their appearance from the equator to the poles. Despite the differences in approaches to the classification of landscape units, the doctrine of landscape zones has received universal recognition and has become an integral part of the theory of geographical science.

However, the answer to the question of how many landscape (natural, geographical) zones there are in the world is difficult to obtain. If at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. identified 7 zones, then in the middle of the 20th century. already 12, and in modern physiographic atlases of the world their number sometimes exceeds 50 (including subzones). As a rule, this is not a consequence of some errors, but of enthusiasm for overly detailed soil-botanical and climatic classifications.

A good idea of ​​the 17 main landscape zones of the world, indicating some quantitative characteristics, is given in table. 3, compiled. It demonstrates the undeniable specificity (i.e. reality) of landscape zones. Moreover, each of them is not identical to the geobotanical one (although the names of the zones usually reflect precisely the geobotanical feature, which indicates the colossal role of the vegetation cover - this “clothing” of the landscape and a very sensitive indicator of any changes in natural conditions), nor the soil, nor the geochemical, nor any other zone.

Many classifications of landscape zones in the northern cold zone begin with arctic desert zones, which is in the table. 3 is missing (it is marked in Fig. 6). We are talking about the northern part of the Canadian archipelago, Greenland (without the southern tip), part of Spitsbergen, the islands of the Russian Arctic: Wiese, Ushakov, De Long, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya. On the other “edge” of the planet it is associated with the arctic desert zone Antarctic Ice Desert Zone, covering Antarctica excluding the western part of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Tundra zone, given in table. 3, occupies the northern outskirts of Europe, Asia, North America and certain coasts of Greenland. It cannot be clearly outlined by parallels, since its southern border is tortuous and “migrates” from the 73rd parallel to the 60th. (In the southern hemisphere, the so-called tundra-meadow zone, whose borders are torn in nature - it is represented, as it were, in patches in the west of the Antarctic Peninsula, in the south of Tierra del Fuego and on the subantarctic islands.)

Second zone - taiga zone, represented by damp and gloomy coniferous and coniferous-small-leaved forests, in the form of a trail crosses the territories of Canada, Fennoscandia, and Russia. (Often, between the zones of tundra and taiga there is an independent forest-tundra zone And woodlands as a kind of southern framing of the tundra, although more often it is attached either to the tundra or to the taiga.) The taiga zone, as is known, is asymmetrical - it does not exist in the southern hemisphere.

Further identifies landscape areas such as sub-boreal forest And deciduous forests, united by individual authors into a single zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests. They occupy vast areas in the eastern United States (territories adjacent to the Appalachians and the Great Lakes), in Western Europe (except for the Mediterranean), the middle zone of the Russian Federation, and part of the Pacific sector of Asia.

Despite the marginal, i.e. transitional nature forest zonesdrink(from forest zone to steppe), it is present in almost all classification schemes of landscape zones in the world. The typical landscape of the forest-steppe is an alternation of areas of forest and meadow steppe (as the name of the zone itself suggests). The most pronounced continuous strip of forest-steppe forms in the European part of Russia and Siberia. Its dispersed habitats are found on the Danube plains, in the south of the Greater Khingan, on the American continent, etc.

Steppe zone- open landscapes with wide horizons - easily observed in Russia (where it stretches from the Central Black Earth region, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories to the foothills

Altai, crossing Kazakhstan and “fitting” in the space between 45 and 55° N. sh.), in Mongolia, Western Europe, the USA (in the latter case, the zone has an almost meridional orientation due to the action of azonal factors, primarily the Cordillera).

Following the steppe zone are located semi-desert and desert zonestemperate zone. The first - desert steppe, or dry steppe - is marginal in nature. It is also easily “visible” as in the territory former USSR(where it stretches from the Volga to the Irtysh and further through the territories of the Central Asian states), and in North America (the western part of the prairie plateau). As is known, the semi-desert zone is completely absent in Western Europe (but in South America it occupies vast areas in Patagonia).

The second - the temperate desert zone - is represented in both hemispheres. It stretches in a wide strip across the territory of the post-Soviet space, capturing Mongolia, China and some other countries, forming a chain of well-known deserts: Karakum, Kyzylkum, Taklamakan, Gobi, Beishan, Alashan, etc. Specific relief forms reign here: dunes, ridge sands, blowing basins, yardangs, takyrs, mushroom-shaped rocks, adyrs, uzboys (dry riverbeds), etc. The desert zone also occupies vast areas in North America (Great Basin).

subtropical humid forest zone(or a zone of subtropical evergreen and mixed forests), which is mostly “patch-shaped” in nature (Colchis in Georgia, Lenkoran in Azerbaijan, coastal plains in China and Japan, the east coast of the USA south of 36° N); Moreover, the landscapes of this zone are also represented in the southern hemisphere (the south of the Brazilian massif - 23-30° S, the Parana plateau; the African coast south of 30° S, a narrow strip of the eastern coast of Australia, etc.);

Mediterranean zone subtropics, exposed to summer time influence of trade winds (tropical winds), and in winter - cyclonic circulation of the temperate zone. The name of this landscape zone is arbitrary, since in addition to the Mediterranean coast itself (Southern Europe, western Asia Minor, Lebanon, a narrow strip along the Atlas Mountains), it can include the southern coast of Crimea, some sections of the Northern Black Sea coast, California from 43° N. w. to the US border. In the southern hemisphere, the landscapes of this zone are characteristic of southwest Africa, the southwestern tip of Australia, middle Chile (32-38° S);

subtropical desert zone as it were, it closes the “subtropical macrozone” (some authors “ahead” it also identify a zone of subtropical savannas, parts of which are confined to Texas and the inland lowlands of Australia). In the territory of the former USSR, subtropical deserts are represented only in the south of Central Asia (south of 40° N), in Africa - on the Libyan-Egyptian coast, the Namib Desert and the Nama Plateau, in South America - the Atacama Desert, in Australia - in small areas to the south 30° S w.

Tropical Desert Zone clearly manifested in Africa (Sahara), Arabia, India (Thar). In North America it covers western territories Mexico, the lower reaches of Colorado, the California peninsula, and in the southern hemisphere it is represented by the South American Central Andes (15-18° S) and the interior regions of Australia.

Savannah is differentiated into three landscape zones: desert savanna; typical savanna; wet savannah. The reasons for such “fragmentation” are weighty - it is enough to pay attention at least to the annual amount of precipitation by zone (from 200-500 mm in the desert savanna to 1000-1500 mm in the humid savanna). Savannah landscapes occupy vast areas in Africa (Sudan, East Africa, the Congo-Zambezi and Zambezi-Limpopo watershed plateaus, part of the Kalahari Basin), in South America (the Brazilian Massif, the Gran Chaco, the Orinoco Basin and part of the Guiana Massif), in Australia (areas in the north of the continent), in Hindustan (south of 22° N).

Finally they're coming subequatorial variable-humid forest zone andwet equatorial gil zone(or tropical rain forest zone). In the literature, these zones are often combined under the name “tropical rainforests.” They represent a kingdom (unfortunately, rapidly shrinking in area!) of evergreen and deciduous-evergreen forests. The most typical areas of these landscapes are represented in the Amazon and Congo basins, in the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea.

Natural resource factor of regionalism

" This chapter covers only the most general issues, related to the development of regionalism processes in the natural environment. Out of sight were, for example, extremely important aspects of the natural resource regionalization of the world, which are simultaneously related to geography, geology, biology, and all aspects of human life.

The geographical boundaries of human habitation expanded in strict accordance with the distribution of natural resources and the nature of natural conditions. In very ancient times, areas with a warm and humid climate, abundant biological resources, served as the most important centers of attraction for primitive people. And today, territorial differentiation of natural resources and conditions most directly affects the settlement of people, their way of life and culture, the efficiency of the economy, etc.

Each classification type of natural resources has long-developed own criteria and regionalization schemes. For example, soil resources depending on the result of the interaction of organisms and the products of their vital activity with rocks and their weathering products, it is customary to differentiate into many types: tundra gley, podzolic, sod-podzolic, brown and gray forest soils, chernozems, peat-bog, alluvial, mountain-tundra soils and etc. Naturally, the identification of fairly extensive soil regions presupposes a certain degree of generalization of local soil differences, because within such areas there are necessarily “extraneous” inclusions. (Note that soil regions can be determined by other criteria: slope steepness, drainage, direction of agricultural use, etc.)

Regionalization of mineral, forest and other types of resources is carried out in a similar way. Attempts at integrated, or “synthetic,” natural resource regionalization of countries and territories are also very common (sometimes with an economic assessment of the total natural resource potential in scoring, index and cost forms).

Space and territory, often filling them with the same meaning. However, the concept territory" differs from the concept of "space" in its concreteness, reference to certain coordinates on the earth's surface.

Territory- part of the land surface with its inherent natural, as well as those created as a result of human activity, properties and resources. The role of the spatial (territorial) factor in the life of society cannot be underestimated or exaggerated.

State borders define the boundaries of the state territory, and this is their main purpose. The entire inhabited part of the land (i.e., all continents except) and the vast sea areas adjacent to it are separated by political borders. In fact, in addition to state borders, non-state borders also have a political character: according to international agreements, treaty, temporary, demarcation.

State borders are lines and imaginary vertical surfaces running along these lines that define the limits of the state’s territory (land, water, subsoil, airspace), i.e., the limits of the spread of sovereignty.

Land and maritime state borders between neighboring states are established by agreement. There are two types of establishing state borders - delimitation and demarcation.

Delimitation- determination, by agreement between the governments of neighboring states, of the general direction of the state border and drawing it on.

Demarcation- drawing the state border line and marking it with appropriate border signs.

Orographic, geometric and geographical state boundaries are known in practice. a border is a line drawn along natural boundaries, taking into account the terrain, mainly along a mountain watershed and river beds. A geometric border is a straight line connecting two points of the state border defined on the ground, which crosses the terrain without taking into account. Geographical (astronomical) boundary - a line passing through certain and sometimes coinciding with one or another parallel or meridian. The last two types of boundaries are widespread in America. Russia has all kinds of borders.

On border lakes, the state border line runs in the middle of the lake or along a straight line connecting the exits of the land state border to its shores. Within the state territory, the boundaries of administrative-territorial units (republics, states, provinces, lands, regions, etc.) and economic regions are also distinguished.

There are state territories, as well as territories with international and mixed regimes.

1. State territory is a territory that is under the sovereignty of a certain state. The territory of the state includes: land within its borders, waters (internal and territorial) and airspace above the land and waters. Most of the coastal states (there are about 100 of them) have territorial waters (a strip of coastal sea waters) ranging from 3 to 12 nautical miles from the coast.
2. Territories with international regime include terrestrial spaces lying outside the state territory, which are located in common use all states in accordance with international law. These are the open sea, the airspace above it, and the deep seabed beyond the continental shelf.

The international legal regime of high seas areas () has some peculiarities. , and other countries have divided it into "polar sectors". All lands and islands within the “polar sectors” and ice fields off the coast are part of the state territories of these countries. “Polar sector” is a space whose base is the northern border of the state, the top is , and the lateral borders are the meridians.

It should also be noted that there is a special international legal regime established in Antarctica under the 1959 Treaty. The continent is completely demilitarized and open to scientific research from all countries.

Outer space is located outside the terrestrial territory and its legal regime is determined by the principles and norms of international space law.

3. Territories with a mixed regime include the continental shelf and the economic zone.
Determination of the ownership, regime and boundaries of comparatively shallow-water areas adjacent to the coast became in the second half of the 20th century. into an important political and legal problem in connection with the possibility of exploration and development of the natural resources of the continental shelf (gas, etc.). According to some estimates, the area of ​​the continental shelf is almost 1/2 of the surface of the World Ocean.

In accordance with the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, the continental shelf refers to the seabed and subsoil of underwater areas extending beyond the territorial waters of a state throughout the natural continuation of its land territory to the outer boundary of the underwater edge of the continent or a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines , from which the width of territorial waters is measured when the outer boundary of the underwater edge of the continent does not extend to such a distance.

The outer limit of the continental shelf cannot be more than 100 nautical miles from the 200-meter isobath (line of equal depths) and must not extend further than 350 nautical miles from the baselines from which the width of territorial waters is measured.

The depths of the shelf edge are usually 100-200 m, but in some cases they reach 1500-2000 m (South Kuril Basin).

Fishing zones and shelves often exceed the area of ​​a state’s land territory and can significantly increase its resource potential.

Special territorial regimes are international legal regimes that determine the legal status and procedure for using any limited territory or space. They can be established in the interests of some or all states of the world.

Thus, the modes of navigation along international straits and canals used for international shipping are known; regimes of fishing and other types of marine fishing; exploitation of the seabed (exploitation of the continental shelf, etc.); regime and other types of economic activity on border rivers, etc.

Special types of territorial regime are international legal lease of territory, the regime of “free economic zones”, privileged in customs terms, etc. (Regimes for the use of military bases on foreign territories do not fall into the category of special territorial regime).

1. Working with the contour map on p. 89:
a) write down the names and coordinates of the extreme points of Eurasia; b)
describe the seas washing Eurasia, peninsulas, bays, islands;
c) label large lakes, rivers and mark the predominant type of their nutrition (D - rain, L - glacial, S - snow, Sm - mixed), and for rivers also the time when they flood (1 - winter, 2 - spring, 3 - summer, 4 - autumn).

2. Describe the geographical location of Eurasia according to the plan in the textbook appendix.
1. The equator does not cross, the Arctic Circle and the prime meridian do.
2. N->S approximately 8 thousand km; W->E approximately 18 thousand km
3. SAP AP UP STP TP SEP
4. oceans: Pacific, Indian, Atlantic, seas: Mediterranean, Norwegian, Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi, Bering, Okhotsk, Philippine, South China, Arabian
5. Near Africa, Australia, North America

3. Determine the extent of Eurasia in degree measure and kilometers:
a) from north to south approximately 8 thousand km, 77 degrees
b) from west to east approximately 18 thousand km, 199 degrees
Calculate the distance:
a) from Cape Chelyuskin to the North Pole in degrees 12 degrees , in kilometers approximately 1400 km
b) from Cape Piai to the equator in degrees 1 degree , in kilometers approximately 120 km

4. Which continental shores are the most rugged?
Western (The Atlantic Ocean extends deep into the land)

5. Which geographical objects of the mainland are named after travelers:
V. Barents - sea, island
S. Chelyuskina - cape
V. Bering - strait, sea, island, glacier
S. Dezhneva - cape
D. and Kh. Laptev - sea

6. How will the outlines of Eurasia change if its coastline coincides with the boundary of the continental crust? Reflect the answer with a dotted line on the contour map on p. 89

Write down the landforms that it intersects:
a) meridian 80 degrees east. - mountains, mountains, small springs, plains, lowlands
b) parallel 40 degrees north latitude. - mountains, lowlands

8. Where are most of the mountain systems of Eurasia located?
South and East (clashes lithospheric plates)

9. Where are the areas of earthquakes and modern volcanism located in Eurasia?
Seismic belts: Alpine-Himalayan, Pacific
Collision sites of lithospheric plates.

10. How was the Indo-Gangetic Plain formed? Which plains of Eurasia have a similar origin?
Sediments from the Indus and Ganges rivers. The Mesopotamian and Padan lowlands have the same origin

11. Establish the patterns of distribution of mineral resources in Eurasia.

12 Why are mineral deposits of igneous origin located not only in the mountainous regions of Eurasia, but also on the plains?
Since the plains correspond to platforms, they are based on crystalline rocks of igneous origin.

13. Which areas of Eurasia are especially rich in oil?
Arabian Peninsula, Western Siberia, North Sea shelf (sedimentary accumulations)

14. In what part and due to what do you think will the area of ​​Eurasia increase?
Uplift of some areas, for example: Scandinavian Peninsula, Jutland Peninsula

15. Identify places in Eurasia:
a) the coldest - Oymyakon city
b) the hottest - Arabian Peninsula
c) the driest - Rub al-Khali desert
d) the wettest - Cherrapunji city

16. What is the influence of the oceans washing it on the nature of Eurasia:
Quiet - warm current, monsoon climate type, easterly current
Atlantic - replacement wind from the ocean, warm current
Indian - monsoon winds from the ocean
Arctic - cold and dry VMs

17. Using the climate map of Eurasia in the atlas, establish the features of the course of the zero isotherm on the continent. Explain your reasons.
West (weight part) - warm North Atlantic Current. In the interior of the continent far to the south (continental climate). In the east it rises to the north (warm currents)

18. In what climatic zones is Eurasia located?
Arctic subarctic temperate, subtropical, tropical, subequatorial, equatorial CP (considerable extent from north to south)

19. Fill out the table (Climatic zone - Predominant air masses - Characteristics of the seasons)

20. In which climate zone of Eurasia are there especially many climatic regions? What is the reason for this diversity?
Temperate zone (considerable extent from west to east)

21. To which climatic zones do the climatograms given in the textbook belong?
a) temperate continental climate
b) maritime temperate climate
c) continental climate of the temperate zone

22. Write a description of the climate of the Apennine Peninsula and the Korean Peninsula. Fill the table.

Conclusion: The climate differs in its characteristics, since the Apennine Peninsula has a subtropical and temperate climate, and the Korean peninsula has a moderate monsoon climate.

23. Using the climate map of Eurasia in the atlas, make a description of the climate of the Hindustan Peninsula and the Arabian Peninsula. Fill the table.

24. Which continental areas have the most favorable climate for human life?
Western and Central Europe (moderate temperatures in summer and moderate temperatures in winter with sufficient rainfall)

25*. The climate of which areas of Eurasia would change if the height of the Himalayas were no more than 1000 m?
South and Central Asia (the summer wet monsoon would penetrate further inland, and the winter monsoon would bring dry and cold air to South Asia).

26. To which ocean basin does most of the territory of Eurasia belong?
The Arctic Ocean

27. In what months do rivers flood? Southern Europe? Why?
Winter months (the territory is located in the Subtropical climate zone of the Mediterranean type, and in winter the tropical air mass is dry and warm)

28. What is the similarity of the regime of the rivers of Eurasia belonging to the Pacific and Indian Oceans?
Their main source of nutrition is monsoon rains. High water occurs in the summer.

29. The rivers of which areas of Eurasia do not freeze? Give examples.
Rivers in EKP SEKP TKP SUTKP
For example: Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, Yellow River, Po

30. What is the role of inland waters of Eurasia in the life of the population?
1) Fresh water source
2) Large transport routes
3) Fishing
4) Electricity source
5) Tourism

31. Which rivers of Eurasia bring a lot of trouble to people living on their banks? Why do these disasters happen? How do people prevent them?
Rivers of Western Siberia, mountain rivers of the UP (climate change and human activity). Prevention measures include planting forests along the banks, breaking up traffic jams, and building dams.

32. Using the map of natural zones of Eurasia in the atlas, determine which zone occupies:
a) the largest area Taiga
b) the smallest area Arctic deserts, equatorial forests

33. Explain the features of the location of natural areas of the continent.
In the north, natural zones stretch in a continuous strip, and to the south the taiga changes not only from north to east, but also from west to east. (The law of broad zoning appears)

34. Identify the similarities and differences in the alternation of natural zones of Eurasia and North America, located on the 40th parallel.
Similarities: Steppes and forest-steppes
Differences: There are no deserts in North America

35. On which plains of Eurasia is the law of latitudinal zonation most clearly manifested?
East European and West Siberian Plains

36. Which natural areas of the continent are characterized by:
a) dwarf birch, lemming tundra and forest-tundra
b) vanilla, teak and sal trees, elephant sparse forests and savannas
c) myrtle, holm oak, wild rabbit zone of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs (Mediterranean)
d) feather grass, fescue, bustard steppes
e) camphor laurel, camellia, magnolia, bamboo bear variable wet and monsoon forests

37. Give examples of the mountains of Eurasia, where the altitude zones are:
a) a lot Similan, Tien Shan, Caucasus, Pamir
b) little Scandinavian and Ural
Explain the reasons for the differences.
1) There are few belts, since the mountains are of insignificant height
2) A lot, since the mountains are quite high and located closer to the equator

38. Describe or draw the appearance of summer tundra, winter taiga, hard-leaved evergreen forests and Mediterranean-type shrubs (two zones to choose from)
The predominant brown soils here are fertile. Evergreens are well adapted to summer heat and dry air. They have dense, shiny leaves, and in some plants they are narrow, sometimes covered with hairs. This reduces evaporation. Grasses grow wildly in winter
Natural area Hard-leaved evergreen forest shrubs

The soils are podzolic. Cold-resistant conifers (pine, spruce, fir, Siberian pine), as well as larch, grow on them. Wolves, bears, moose, and squirrels live here, adapted to life in the forest.
Natural area Taiga

39. Compare the Karakum, Taklamakan and Rub al-Khali deserts. Fill the table

Indicate the differences in the nature of these deserts and their reasons: Rub al-Khali is the hottest (in a tropical desert type of climate). Taklamakan is the most severe (surrounded on all sides by mountains)

40. Identify the largest and smallest peoples of Eurasia. Fill the table.
Peoples - Territories of residence
Large
1) Chinese - Chinese
2) Hindustani - Hindustan Peninsula
3) Bengalis - South Asia
4) Russians - Russia
5) Japanese - Japan

Small
1) Evenks - Eastern Siberia
2) Livs - Baltics
3) Orochons - China, Mongolia

41. Name the climatic zones and natural zones:
a) with the highest population density UP STP SEP steppe, forest-steppe, savannas, mixed and deciduous forests
b) with the lowest population density AP SAP TP deserts, tundra

42. Name five peoples of Eurasia who live:
a) on the plains Poles, Danes, Germans, Moldovans, Belarusians
b) in the mountains Nepalese, Kyrgyz, Tibetans, Tajiks, Pashtuns

43. What peoples of the mainland live in the zone:
a) taiga Finns, Swedes, Evenks, Norwegians
b) mixed and deciduous forests Belarusians, Germans, Poles, Estonians, Latvians
c) deserts Arabs, Uzbeks, Turkmens
d) savannah Veddas, Sinhalas, Tamils
e) equatorial forests Dayaks, Ibans, Malays

44. Fill out the outline map
45. Fill out the outline map

46. ​​Make a “catalog” of Eurasian countries, grouping them according to various criteria. Determine the basis for grouping yourself. Present the result of your work in the table.
Feature - Country
1. Territory
a) large: Russia, China, India, Ukraine
b) small: Singapore, Andorra, Vatican
2. Population
a) large: China, India, Russia
b) small: Andora, Monaco, Liechtenstein
3. By geographical location
a) access to the sea: Russia, Italy, India
b) inland: Czech Republic, Switzerland, Austria
4. Highly developed: France, Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Japan

47. Using the political map, determine which Eurasian countries have:
a) land borders with only one or two countries: Ireland, Monaco, Vatican
b) a large number of neighboring countries: Russia, Germany, China

48. In which countries are:
a) Bosphorus Strait Türkiye
b) Mount Chomolungma China, Nepal
c) Dead Sea Israel, Jordan
d) Hekla volcano Iceland
e) Krakatoa volcano Indonesia
e) Lake Lop Nor China
g) Lake Geneva Switzerland, France
h) Elbe River Czech Republic, Germany
i) Yangtze River China

49. Show on a map the features of the economic activities of the population of China. Sign the major cities.

51. Describe the geographical location of one of the cities in Europe and one of the cities in Asia. Fill the table

52. Give an example of the influence of the natural environment on the type of housing, the material from which they are built, national clothing, food, customs and rituals of the peoples of Eurasia. Make a drawing.
The dwellings of the AP and SAP peoples consist of animal skins. Clothing protects both from frost and summer insects. Meat is the main food product.

53. Assess the contribution of the peoples of Eurasia to the development of world civilization. Fill out the table.
Country - Names of prominent people - Cultural monuments
Russia - M. Lomonosov, A. Pushkin - Kremlin, Red Square
Italy - Marco Polo - Venice
UK - Charles Darwin - Stonehenge
India - Rajiv Gandhi - Taj Mahal

Geography as a science studies a number of features of our planet, paying great attention to the shell. The modern approach involves dividing the planet's shell into several large zones, which are called geographic zones. At the same time, attention is paid to a number of criteria: temperature characteristics, the specifics of the circulation of atmospheric masses, the characteristic features of the animal and plant world.

What exists?

You can learn a lot of interesting information from geography. For example, it is known how many time zones Russia is located in: nine. But there are six geographical zones in our country. In total, there are nine types of geographical zones: equatorial, subequatorial (two slightly different types), tropics, subtropics (two, each on its own half of the planet), two northern zones on each hemisphere - the Arctic and Antarctic, as well as the subarctic , subantarctic belts adjacent to them. Geographical are climatic zones (that is, there are two terms that apply to the same real area).

All geographic zones can be divided into For correct division, it is necessary to analyze temperature, humidity and identify the relationship between these parameters. Zones were often named based on the type of vegetation that predominated in the area. In some cases, a natural area is named after a term that describes its characteristic landscape. Thus, the geographical zones of Russia include the following natural zones: tundra, steppe, desert and forests. In addition, there are forest-tundras, open forests, semi-deserts and many other types of zones.

Belts and zones: is there a difference?

As we know from geography, natural zones are a latitudinal phenomenon, but zones depend much less on latitude. The heterogeneity of the surface of our planet plays a role, due to which the level of humidity varies greatly. The same continent in different parts at the same latitude can have different humidity levels.

As can be seen from the geography of the globe, often rather dry areas are located inside the continent: steppes, deserts, semi-deserts. But there are exceptions everywhere: Namib, Atacama - these are classic representatives of deserts, but they are located on the coast, and in a rather cold area. Zones within a geographic zone that cross continents are predominantly heterogeneous, which is why the term “meridional areas” was introduced. As a rule, they talk about three such areas: a central one, remote from the coast, and two coastal areas adjacent to the ocean.

Eurasia: features of the continent

Geographic zones characteristic of Eurasia are usually divided into the following additional zones: broad-leaved forested steppes extend to the west of the Urals, coniferous and small-leaved forested steppes dominate between the Urals and Baikal, and prairies are located in the territory between the Songhua and Amur. In some places, zones move from one to another gradually; there are transitional areas, due to which the boundaries are blurred.

Features of climate zones

Such areas are homogeneous in terms of climate; they can be interrupted or continuous. Climate zones are located along the latitudes of our planet. To divide space into such areas, scientists analyze the following information:

• specifics of atmospheric mass circulation;
• level of heating from the luminary;
• changes in atmospheric masses provoked by seasonal factors.

It is noted that the difference between subequatorial climate, equatorial, temperate and other types is quite significant. Usually the countdown starts from the equator, gradually moving upward - to the two poles. In addition to the latitude factor on climate strong influence influenced by the topography of the planet's surface, the proximity of large bodies of water, and the rise relative to sea level.

Basic theory

The rather famous Soviet scientist Alisov spoke in his works about how natural geographical zones and climatic zones are differentiated, how they transform into each other and how they are divided into zones. In particular, a landmark work on climatology was published under his name in 1956. It laid the foundations for the classification of all climate zones existing on our planet. From that year to the present day, not only in our country, but also almost all over the world, the classification system proposed by Alisov has been used. It is thanks to this outstanding Soviet figure that no one has any doubts about what climate, for example, the Caribbean islands belong to.

Considering the subarctic and subantarctic belts, as well as other belts, Alisov identified four main zones and three transitional zones: adjacent to the poles, adjacent to them, temperate, tropical, adjacent to the tropics and the equator. Each zone has its own unique continental, oceanic, and coastal zone, characteristic of the east and west.

Closer to the warmth

Perhaps the most pleasant places for lovers of warmer places are not the Arctic and Antarctic zones (by the way, in former times there was a misconception that the south pole was the warmest place on the planet), but the equator. The air here is warmed up to 24-28 degrees all year round. The water temperature during the year sometimes fluctuates by only one degree. But a lot of precipitation falls on the equator per year: up to 3,000 mm in flat areas, and twice as much in mountainous areas.

Another warm part of the planet is the one where a subequatorial climate reigns. The prefix “sub” in the name means “under”. This area is located between the equator and the tropics. In summer the weather is predominantly controlled by air masses from the equator, while in winter the tropics dominate. In summer there is less precipitation than its neighbors on the equator (from 1,000 to 3,000 mm), but the temperature is slightly higher - about 30 degrees. The winter period passes with virtually no precipitation, the air warms up to +14 on average.

Tropics and subtropics

The tropics are divided into continental and oceanic, and each category has its own characteristic feature. On the mainland, precipitation usually amounts to 100-250 mm per year; in summer the air warms up to 40 degrees, and in winter - only up to 15. In 24 hours, the temperature can fluctuate within forty degrees. But the oceanic zone is distinguished by an even lower volume of precipitation (within 50 mm), a slightly lower average daily temperature in summer than on the mainland - up to 27 degrees. And in winter it is as cold here as further from the coast - about 15 degrees Celsius.

The subtropics are a zone that provides a smooth transition from the tropical geographical zone to the temperate one. In summer, the weather here is “controlled” by air masses that come from more southern neighboring areas, but in winter - from temperate latitudes. In summer, the subtropics are usually dry and hot, the air warms up to 50 degrees Celsius. IN winter period This climate is characterized by cold, precipitation, and possible snow. True, there is no permanent snow cover in the subtropics. Annual precipitation amounts to approximately 500 mm.

The mainland is usually located in the dry subtropics, where it is very hot in summer, but in winter the thermometer drops to minus twenty. During the year, precipitation falls in the amount of 120 mm, or even less. The Mediterranean also belongs to the subtropics, and the name of this area gave the name to the geographical zone - Mediterranean, characteristic of the western extremities of the continents. In summer it is dry and hot, and in winter it is cool and rainy. Usually up to 600 mm of precipitation falls per year. Finally, the eastern subtropics are monsoons. In winter, it is cold and dry here (compared to other parts of the subtropical geographical zone), in summer the air warms up to 25 degrees Celsius, and it rains (about 800 mm of precipitation).

Temperate climate

Any educated resident of Russia should know how many time zones (nine) and how many climatic zones (four) there are in the territory home country. In this case, the temperate climatic and geographical zone is dominant. It is characterized by temperate latitudes and is characterized by a fairly high annual precipitation: from 1,000 to 3,000 in coastal areas. But in internal zones precipitation is often low: only 100 mm in some areas. In summer, the air warms up to temperatures from 10 to 28 degrees Celsius, and in winter it varies from 4 degrees Celsius to frost reaching -50 degrees. It is customary to talk about marine, monsoon, and continental temperate areas. Anyone should know them, as well as how many time zones Russia is located in (nine). educated person, who took a school geography course.

It is characterized by a fairly large amount of precipitation: in mountainous areas up to 6,000 mm falls per year. On the plain it is usually less: from 500 to 1,000 mm. In winter, the air warms up to five degrees Celsius, and in summer - up to 20. In the continental part, about 400 mm of precipitation falls annually, the warm season is characterized by air heated to 26 degrees, and in winter frosts reach -24 degrees. The continental temperate zone is an area where there is persistent snow cover for several months of the year. There are many territories where this period is very long. Finally, the temperate monsoon is an additional climate type characterized by annual precipitation levels of up to 560 mm. In winter it is usually clear, frost reaches 27 degrees, and in summer it often rains, the air warms up to 23 degrees Celsius.

On North!

Subpolar climates are the two poles adjacent to the Arctic and Antarctic, respectively. In summer, this area is quite cool, as it comes wet air from temperate latitudes. Usually the warm period is characterized by warming up of air masses to 10 degrees Celsius, precipitation - at the level of 300 mm. However, depending on the specific area, these indicators vary significantly. For example, in the northeastern parts of Yakutia, only 100 mm of precipitation often falls. But winter in a subpolar climate is cold, reigning for many months. At this time of year, air masses coming from the north dominate, and the thermometer drops to -50 degrees, or even lower.

Finally, the coldest are the Arctic and Antarctic zones. The prevailing climate here is considered polar in geography. It is typical for latitudes above 70 degrees in the north and below 65 in the south. This area is characterized by cold air and year-round persistent snow cover. This climate is not characterized by precipitation, but the air is often filled with tiny needles of ice. Due to the settling of these masses, an increase in snow occurs during the year, comparable to 100 mm of precipitation. On average, in summer the air warms up to zero Celsius, and in winter there is frost down to -40 degrees. Geographic coordinates of the earth's poles:

• in the south - 90°00′00″ south latitude;
• in the north - 90°00′00″ north latitude.

Geographic time zones

Another important geographical division of our planet is due to the specifics of the rotation of the globe around its axis and around the Sun. All this affects the changing time of day - in different areas the day begins at different times. How many time zones are there on our planet? The correct answer is 24.

The fact that uniform illumination of the entire surface of the planet is impossible became clear when humanity discovered that the Earth is not at all flat surface, but a rotating ball. Consequently, as scientists soon found out, on the surface of the planet there is a cyclical change of time of day, consistent and gradual - it was called a change of time zone. In this case, astronomical time is determined by the situation that different parts of the globe have at different times.

Historical milestones and geography

It is known that in earlier times the astronomical difference did not actually create any problems for humanity. To tell the time, one only had to look at the Sun; noon was determined by the moment when the luminary passed its highest point above the horizon. At that time, ordinary people often did not even have their own clocks, but only city clocks, which carried information about the change of time throughout the locality.

The concept of “time zone” did not exist; in those days it was impossible to imagine that it could be relevant. Between settlements located close to each other, the time difference was minutes - well, let's say, a quarter of an hour, no more. Considering the lack of telephone communication (and even more so high-speed Internet), as well as limited opportunities Vehicle, such time shifts did not represent a truly significant difference.

Time synchronization

Technological progress has presented humanity with an abundance of new tasks and problems, and time synchronization has become one of them. This changed human life quite a lot, and the time difference turned out to be a source of considerable headaches, especially at first, while a solution in the form of changing time zones with systematization of this phenomenon did not exist. Those who traveled long distances by train were the first to experience the difficulty of changing time periods. One meridian forced the hour hand to move by 4 minutes - and so on all the way. Of course, it was not easy to follow this.

Railway workers found themselves in an even more difficult situation, because dispatchers simply could not say in advance and exactly at what point in time and in what place in space the train would be located. And the problem was much more significant than a possible delay: an incorrect schedule could lead to clashes and numerous casualties. To get out of this situation, it was decided to introduce time zones.

Order restored

The initiator of the introduction of time zones was the famous English scientist William Wollaston, who worked with the chemistry of metals. Surprisingly, it was the chemist who solved the chronological problem. His idea was the following: to call the territory of Great Britain one time zone, to give it the name Greenwich. Railway representatives quickly appreciated the benefits of this proposal, and uniform time was introduced already in 1840. After another 12 years, the telegraph regularly transmitted a signal about the exact time, and in 1880, the whole of Great Britain switched to a single time, for which the authorities even issued a special law.

The first country to pick up the English fashion for precise time was America. True, the United States is much larger in territory than England, so the idea had to be improved. It was decided to divide the entire space into four zones, in which the time with neighboring areas differed by an hour. These were the first time zones in the history of our time: Center, Mountains, East and Pacific. But in cities, people often refused to follow the new law. The last one to resist the innovation was Detroit, but here the public finally gave in - since 1916, the clock hands have been moved, and from then to this day, time has reigned in accordance with the division of the planet into time zones.

An idea takes over the world

The first propaganda of dividing space into time zones attracted attention in different countries even at a time when time zones had not been introduced anywhere, but Railway already needed a mechanism for coordinating time intervals. Then for the first time the idea was voiced about the need to divide the entire planet into 24 sections. True, politicians and scientists did not support it, called it a utopia and immediately forgot. But in 1884, the situation changed radically: the planet was divided into 24 parts during a conference with the participation of representatives from different countries. The event was held in Washington. A number of countries spoke out against the innovation, among them was a representative Russian Empire. Our country recognized the division into time zones only in 1919.

Currently, the division into time zones is recognized throughout the planet and is actively used in various areas of life. The need for time synchronization, also due to rapid communication with different parts of the earth using latest technologies, is now more relevant than ever. Fortunately, people come to help people technical means: programmable watches, computers and smartphones, through which you can always find out exactly what time it is anywhere on the planet and how different this time is from typical other areas.