Personality of analytical psychology of Mr. Jung. Buy a university diploma in Russia, a diploma from an institute, university, academy

Jung's analytical psychology today is not only used by professional psychologists and psychotherapists in their work, but also in a very simplified form is popular among ordinary people. So, for example, people who are no strangers to self-knowledge will certainly be able to easily answer the question of what socionic type of personality they represent and list their own complexes on their fingers. The foundations of socionics and the theory of complexes were formulated precisely in the works of Carl Jung.

As a unit of analysis, Carl Gustav Jung identified archetypes or innate models of perception of reality at different levels of consciousness - national, animal, family, etc. When a person's consciousness becomes imbalanced with its archetypal content, neurosis occurs. To eliminate it, it is necessary to establish a connection between a person’s consciousness and his unconscious. And the task of analytical psychology is to bring to light the images of the unconscious part of the personality, acting in such a way that consciousness is not absorbed by the unconscious (otherwise psychosis occurs). Archetypes form groups of memories and connections around themselves, which in Jung’s works are called “complexes.”

Carl Jung's theory of complexes is one of the most important components of his teaching, which literally turned the world of psychiatry upside down. Today, even among people who are only familiar with psychology at an amateur level, there are probably no people who have not heard about complexes and who have not tried to overcome them in one way or another. However, Jung himself did not endow complexes with a negative component, which must certainly be gotten rid of. He called complexes the mental content of a person’s personality, charged with a certain emotional energy. These are some kind of signs of development. And the task of analytical psychology, Jung believed, is to help a person establish contact with complexes. “Giving the floor” to each complex means listening to the hidden meaning that is inside the personality and thus turning obstacles on the path of development into the next step leading to internal growth.

Jung's methods of analytical psychology

Jung's theories are still used in practice today. One of the main methods for their implementation is active imagination. The person being analyzed is asked to draw something, make a figure out of sand or clay, play musical instrument etc. Through creativity, the unconscious part of the personality is revealed, which the doctor, together with the patient, needs to correctly interpret.

Dream analysis is also a method of searching for the content of the unconscious part of the personality. However, Carl Jung's theory regarding dreams is not similar to the development of his teacher, Sigmund Freud, who “tied” images in dreams to symptoms of certain neurotic diseases. Jung presented dreams as the key to solving deep personal problems.

Carl Jung's personality theory

Jung believed that a person's personality consists of three components:

1. Consciousness or Ego (I);
2. Unconscious individual (It);
3. The unconscious is collective, consisting of archetypes. Unlike the individual unconscious, it is identical for a whole group of people living, for example, in the same territory. Jung considered the collective unconscious to be the deepest layer of the human psyche.

Many ideas expressed by C. Jung in his works have already become part of world culture. In the study of mental processes, he relied on folklore, philosophy, history, cultural studies and esotericism. Therefore, the works of this master are of value today, including for related humanities disciplines.

S. O. Raevsky,

• individual member of the IAAP, candidate of psychological sciences,
• Lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University, co-chairman of the MAAP,
• practicing analyst.

L. A. Khegai,

• individual member of IAAP,
• Lecturer at the Institute of Psychoanalysis (Moscow),
• co-chairman of MAAP,
• practicing analyst.

Introduction

The myths that have developed in the general consciousness about psychoanalysis and Jung's analytical psychology can themselves be the subject of special analysis. Thus, there is a myth about the scientific nature of psychoanalysis and the mysticism of Jungian psychology. Indeed, Freud consciously focused his works on the scientific and medical paradigm, and Jung throughout his life was interested in phenomena lying in the shadow of scientific rationality. However, by basing his theory on the myth of Oedipus, Freud predetermined the development of psychoanalysis and psychology in general as a humanitarian science, not a natural one. Therefore, Jung, with his constant interest in the mythological, can be seen as a continuator of the basic ideas of Freud, who expressed the cultural evolution of Western consciousness. The mutual rejection of psychoanalytic schools, on the one hand, contributed to the development of research in certain directions, such as the archetypal studies of Jung and the post-Jungians, the psycholinguistic studies of Lacan and the poststructuralists, studies of early development in the object relations school; on the other hand, this prevented the exchange between these schools and the introduction of the results of their work into the practice of psychoanalysis. Building psychotherapeutic activities and Scientific research, we are faced with a dilemma: to draw ideas, metaphors and phenomenological generalizations from this inseparable post-psychoanalytic space or to defend our own confessional identity.

Our own position is to accept the ideas of the broad field of modern psychoanalytic practice. The modern educated psychoanalyst of any school differs much more in the style of his work and the body of shared ideas from the founder of that school than from his colleague from another school. However, it is very important for a practicing psychologist or psychotherapist to learn more about the methods of analytical psychology, including them in the context of their own work. Therefore, in this section we will try to highlight the practical aspects of Jungian analysis, touching on theoretical issues only as necessary. It should be noted that Jung himself objected to the transformation of treatment into a purely technical or scientific procedure, arguing that practical medicine is and has always been an art; this also applies to analysis. Therefore, we cannot talk about the methods of analytical psychology in the strict sense. Jung insisted on the need to leave all theories at the threshold of the consulting room and work with each new client spontaneously, without any attitudes or plans. However, this did not mean that analysts lacked theoretical training; on the contrary, Jung advised acquiring as much knowledge as possible and constantly working on oneself. The Jungian therapist's "emptiness" refers rather to his moral duty to the client. If we are able to see in each client the beauty, strength and greatness of his individuality and understand that we are called upon to help him in self-realization, then all the time we need to be careful that these internal potentials of the client are at the center of the process, and not our egoistic needs or our own theories that you sometimes want to find confirmation of. The only theory for the analyst is his sincere, sacrificial love coming from the heart - agape in the biblical sense - and active, effective compassion for people. And his only instrument is his entire personality, because any therapy is carried out not by methods, but by the entire personality of the therapist. This is always a meeting of two inexhaustible and completely unknowable immortal human souls, two vast universes. Recognizing this fact does not mean engaging in primitive mystifications, but, on the contrary, being more aware of the reality of what is happening and being more honest with yourself and with life in general. Jung believed that the psychotherapist must decide in each case whether he wants to take a risky path, armed with advice and help. He should not have any fixed concepts of what is right, and he should not pretend to know the truth. If something which seems to the therapist to be wrong turns out to be something more effective than the truth, then he must first follow the error, for in it is the strength and life that he loses by sticking to what seems to him to be true. Although in an absolute sense the best theory is to have no theories, but best method- have no methods, this attitude should not be used in a defensive manner to justify one's own lack of professionalism. And it is not a reason for naive and “wild”, in Freud’s words, analysis or work “blindly”.

If, following Jung, we see the psyche itself, the soul itself, in the unconscious, then an excessive emphasis on consciousness and rationality in therapy implies devaluation of oneself and non-acceptance of life as such in general. Therefore, the true sincerity, authenticity and spontaneity of the Jungian therapist can only be born from connection with the depths of one’s own being, from contact with its invisible center - the Self, which directs the entire healing process and is the true protagonist of what is happening.

Jungian analysis

Analysis has been and remains the main method of practice of analytical psychology. It is clear that the initial methodological model for Jungian analysis was the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud. However, in analytical psychology this method received a slightly different meaning. theoretical basis and practical expression. Taken together, all these differences go far beyond a simple shift in emphasis, so that one can speak of Jungian analysis as a completely different type of work.

It is obvious that most people applying for psychological help, seek in analysis primarily the relief of their suffering. If people prefer analysis to other methods of psychotherapy, then, as a rule, they are already familiar with at least general outline with the ideas of Freud or Jung. They must understand that if they cannot cope with their problems through volitional conscious efforts, then there are deep unconscious factors that prevent this. Usually they also realize that if their problem has existed for several years and has a long history of formation, then it is not so easy to solve it in a few sessions and requires long, painstaking work with an experienced specialist. It can be assumed that a typical “analytical client” has a long-term relationship in mind from the very beginning. He has enough self-respect and independence not to rely on a miracle or magical power from the outside, but to believe that with the help of an analyst he will be able to gradually understand his problems himself and sooner or later change his life.

Very often, the clients of Jungian analysts are people who have had unsuccessful experiences in psychotherapy. Such people already know how to relate to themselves psychologically, speak psychological language and are capable of reflection. Many people are attracted to analysis by the opportunity to freely express themselves. Unlike short-term therapy, the client undergoing analysis does not need to follow the therapist's directive instructions and adopt, directly or indirectly, his belief system. The element of violence, coercion and pain, so characteristic of any of our fantasies about seeking medical help, is significantly less here. The analysis begins as an ordinary human relationship and is more like a warm, friendly conversation. In essence, the client does not need to specially “adapt” to the analyst; to a large extent, he himself conducts the process. An analyst is not the person who will teach you how to live, save you, or cure you. First of all, this is a close friend with whom the client has a personal relationship, in whose participation, attention and kindness he is absolutely sure. The client knows: “The analyst is always there, he thinks about me, tries to help me, he is always on my side.” At the same time, the terms of the agreement with the analyst allow the client in this relationship not to depend on him in a way that could cause any harm or inconvenience.

Power and initiative are in the hands of the client. In this way, analysis becomes an experience of non-traumatic and healing intimate relationships. It can be assumed that analytical therapy is sought by people who experience a lack of such relationships in their lives. Analysis is conscious and voluntary involvement in symbolic play. Its task is to create a new intersubjective space - a kind of virtual reality- as a result of mixing the subjectivities of the participants. It arises on the border between “I” and “you”, external and internal, and serves as an arena for experimentation in synthesizing consciousness and the unconscious, imaginary and real, and all imaginable polarities. Essentially, this space is a space for creative life. Any creativity is based on the ability to temporarily part with the rational, rational, structured elements of oneself, to allow chaos, confusion and confusion, so that after some time it arises and takes shape. new order. Analysis helps you live creatively not only in relation to a specific hobby, but also in relation to any of your experiences, especially in relation to human relationships. Ultimately, creativity and freedom determine the measure of our happiness in life.

Therefore, in analysis, the client delegates to the analyst those parts of his personality that are responsible for comparison, evaluation, control, organization. But he must do this temporarily, without losing, without losing these most important functions, so that, if necessary, he can take them back. To do this, he needs to be quite clearly aware of the boundaries and understand the conventions of the whole situation as a whole. For example, a client may view an analyst as a good specialist in psychology, perhaps as the very person who is the only one he needs, realizing at the same time that he is not God or a guru, but a simple person, just like everyone else, with his own shortcomings and problems. But he comes to his sessions as a specialist, and not as a random person from the street. Only then will the analysis work.

Thus, the success of the analysis is determined by the extent to which the patient knows how to be a patient. Only then will he allow the analyst to be an analyst. This is the most important condition of analysis. The analyst uses rules and sets boundaries to create the most favorable situation for treatment. But the last word still belongs to the client himself, to his goodwill and desire to cooperate. Therefore, it is obvious that analysis as a method of psychotherapy is not intended for everyone. A certain willingness on the part of the patient and preservation of the functions of his Ego are required. It may be added that a suitable configuration of the unconscious is also necessary, since the analyst and the client must fit each other like a key to a lock. The task of analytical psychology is to reveal the creative potential of any experience, to help the client assimilate it in a useful way, to individuate it. To do this, you need to be able to reflect in a different way, more similar to the ancient practices of meditation - in-depth contemplation and reflection, leaving the object of study as it is, allowing it to play with all its facets, all shades of meaning. Of course, for a modern person this is not very easy to do. We are accustomed to a consumerist attitude towards everything, including our inner world. We want to quickly extract some simple utilitarian meaning: “Yeah, this is my Oedipus complex, now everything is clear!” But it is precisely this separation from one’s own inner life, ignoring the inner world that, from Jung’s point of view, is the cause of the disharmony of modern man, his neuroses and many other problems. That reflection, which is really needed like bread, should return a person to the home of his soul, give a feeling of contact with the inner sacred universe of mental life. This is precisely the practice that Jungian analysis is. On the one hand, it is a continuation of many ancient meditative practices that have maintained mental balance for centuries, and on the other hand, it is simple in form and accessible to modern people, prone to reflection, analysis and use of concepts.

If we return to simpler examples, let's imagine that a person who has difficulties in family life. Obviously, the point is not to make a decision to “settle up” or “divorce.” He seeks a different psychological perspective in his life and hopes to change. His determination, consciously or unconsciously, is associated with a reluctance to take his problems literally and, at least, with a potential willingness to think symbolically. Starting from his problem, he, with the help of an analyst, enters a new metaphorical space, enters into a game of meanings, in the process of which something new and significant for him personally is born. Thus, analysis transforms the lower into the higher, the material into the spiritual, the collective into the individual, the unconscious into the conscious. Of course, to be ready for analysis you need a certain level of cultural development and intelligence, but even more important is this ability to perceive events symbolically, “as if.” However, it is a mistake to consider analysis as a purely intellectual procedure like philosophical discussions. The object of transformation in analysis is our mental life - emotions, feelings and affects. Perhaps when starting an analysis, many clients are looking for stability and certainty in their lives. But this temptation is never justified. In fact, they will encounter a whole ocean of experiences, saturated with waves of joy and pain, happiness and suffering. Psychic reality is an illusory reality; there is nothing concrete, dense, given once and for all in it. At the practical level, the main characteristic features of analysis are the framework, the relationship of transference and countertransference, and the technique of analytical interpretation itself. It is these three elements, necessary for the real healing of unconscious conflicts, that distinguish analysis from any short-term therapy.

Analytical Ritual

Introduction of formalized rules for external elements analysis related to the reception environment, frequency of meetings, payment is associated not only with rational reasons. The analytical reception room should become for the client the place where a meeting with the depths of his own soul and mental transformation will take place. Jung compared the space of analysis to the temenos - the place in ancient temples where the meeting with the gods took place. The meeting with the sacred, the numinous, the immortal, with the mystery of life requires a closed, protected and specially organized space. The analytical space must be quite special in order to constellate the energy of the unconscious. Another metaphor for it, used by Jung, was a hermetically sealed vessel, necessary in alchemy for the transformation of substances. Of course, in principle, nothing can happen in analysis that would not happen naturally in life. The processes of healing and spiritual development occur in a person by themselves and without any psychotherapy. It would be very arrogant to attribute the credit for healing clients entirely to the therapist, ignoring their own role, as well as the role of nature, fate or God. But analysis can be likened to a time machine; it concentrates the energy of the participants and sharply accelerates events, intensifies life. Analysis is a stimulant and catalyst of mental life. There is hope that in a certain sense, thanks to him, we will have time to live in this life what we must live. Therefore, analysis works in the service of nature and fate, although in form the introduction of consciousness into the unconscious is a process that, at first glance, contradicts the forces of nature. Nature is blind and programs individuals for automatic and mechanical scenarios, but it itself human nature strives for expansion of consciousness, for individuation. This basic conflict, which Jung designated as the irreconcilable conflict between instinct and spirit, is the main object of Jungian analysis.

Since ancient times, religious ceremonies, and indeed any rituals preceding hunting or farming, were created in such a way as not only to mobilize internal energy, but also to protect the participant during contact with powerful psychic forces. Direct experience of these forces can be devastating. When Zeus, at the insistence of Semele, appeared to her in his true form, she died of shock. Therefore, some cunning is required, a trick similar to the trick of the Arab boy who managed to push the genie back into the bottle. You can also remember that it was no coincidence that the Lord called to Moses from a burning bush, and Perseus, in order to defeat the Gorgon Medusa, had to look at her through his mirror shield. In scientific terms, we can say that the framework of analysis should set the distance between the ego and the unconscious. Otherwise, a weak, unprepared Ego, opening up to the forces of archaic nature and primary archetypal experience, may not be able to withstand and collapse, and may find itself flooded by the unconscious. It is to protect the client from such danger, and not simply because of the legacy of medical tradition or because of the “reality principle,” that clear rules are introduced into the analysis. It is necessary to understand that recommendations such as contacting the analyst on a “private” basis, not meeting with him during free time from sessions, and even striving not to physically touch clients are introduced not at all out of the desire of analysts to “dissociate themselves,” but for the sake of the healing process itself. The dialectical process is only possible when distance is created between the parties. There is no distance between two objects occupying the same place. Current occurs only when the poles of the circuit are at a distance from each other. The physical distance between client and analyst is a symbolic expression of psychic distance. Gods can come to this formed space of temenos (see above), and deep mental processes can take place in it. At first glance, the neutrality of the analyst and all these rules seem somewhat artificial. But such artificiality and skill are dictated by the strength of those affects that actually have to be dealt with in analysis. In the alchemical laboratory, for the process to be successful, the so-called “mystical sister” had to be present. The master liked her, inspired and seduced him. But the alchemist should not have touched it under any circumstances. Only by observing this taboo would nature, symbolized by chemicals, reveal the light hidden in it and could the birth of true gold, the transformation of the material into the spiritual, take place. Jung said that “only that which is divided can then be united in the right way.”

For an analytical ritual, it is important that it is not so much set “from the outside” by the analyst, but rather that it is invented by the client himself. After all, the reception room, first of all, is the temple of his soul, his temenos. Psychoanalyst Vulcan described a case where a client took off his contact lenses every time he lay down on the couch. He interpreted this behavior as a kind of castration of himself before the start of the session. To which the client did not demonstrate much insight, casually noting that the lenses caused him physical discomfort when lying down. Whatever such symbolic rituals mean for the client, in any case, it is important that he is able to make the waiting room a place where he is comfortable and cozy, where he can open up and entrust things that are significant to him to others. An important role here also plays external conditions. Typically, analysts meet in a quiet room with dim lighting and closed doors. Although absolute isolation from the outside world does not play a big role. Winnicott, on the contrary, gives an example when, during a séance, a lock was being repaired in his house. front door, and this noise contributed to the emergence of valuable material for the client. Very often, a change of reception area, for example when moving to another premises, greatly affects the feelings of clients. The phenomenon of “lost temenos” arises. While inhabiting the room, the client needs to do something to load all the things in the reception area with his own meanings, projections, and experiences. It is always important for him to remember that this is his analysis, that the analyst and the waiting room are the very person and the very place that are intended to help him take care of himself, so that he can do something in this room out of true self-love. In principle, there are several general formal agreements needed at the beginning of an analysis. And although most Jungian analysts prefer an "open" beginning in the style of regular consultations, which can gradually develop into real analysis, they are worth mentioning briefly here. They are not offered to the client immediately from the first minutes of the meeting " full list" And it is quite obvious that violation of the rules of analysis will not entail severe prosecution. Rather, analytical agreements are a gesture of goodwill and mutual respect. They must be internally accepted by the client and become a symbol of his responsibility for his life and development.

Duration of sessions

Typically the length of sessions is between forty and sixty minutes. Therefore, a session is often called an hour. There are probably no special rational reasons for such a choice. Rather, it is a tribute to tradition, since modern people It’s common to measure everything out in hours. Perhaps our internal rhythms are already synchronized with such a time period. Babies are fed by the hour, hourly wages exist for many types of work, school lessons and lectures also last an academic hour. These and other associations inevitably surround the analytic session. The main criterion when choosing the duration of a session is that something real must happen. Therefore, there is no point in dragging out the remaining couple of minutes if there is a feeling that the session is actually over, only for the reason that the client has paid for the entire time. And there is no point in finishing it second by second, interrupting the client mid-sentence. But, of course, it is necessary to warn him if, shortly before the end, he begins a new topic that is important to him. It is usually not recommended to extend sessions much longer or do so-called double sessions, even out of a desire to help the client use time efficiently. In practice, such “indulgences” and deviations from the analytical framework are most often associated either with the therapist’s emotional problems or play into the hands of the patient’s resistance. If, for example, a client is severely stuttering and only manages to say a few words in a session, then prolonging the session could mean “infantilizing” him or emphasizing his inability to cope with the symptom. We must remember that any ritual must take a strictly defined time, that the time for the sacred and the time for the ordinary must always have clear boundaries. The ritual transfers the initiate from the space of linear, “finite” time into the world of eternity, connecting him with the cyclical rhythms of the universe. Only in linear time there is birth, development, maturity and death. In sacred time, this order is relativized in endless repetitions in each cycle, becoming part of another higher order. While going through the ritual, the participant learns from personal experience to combine these different modalities of existence, different orders of the universe. Therefore, for the analyst, maintaining the framework of the session does not at all mean embodying a strict, forbidding father, symbolizing “the order of the mind against the chaos of the unconscious.” Observance of such fundamental accuracy can only be based on an understanding of the archetypal context of what is happening. Only by considering this broader metaphorical context can optimal conditions be created for the client to integrate the experience gained in the analysis. Therefore, it is important that, when accepting the clear agreements proposed by the analyst regarding the duration of sessions and certain days of admission, the client understands (perhaps not immediately) that this is not being done out of respect for the “working time” of the specialist and not from the principle that “all pleasures in life are always limited,” but for his own sake, for the sake of his mental healing, since the psychic world has its own special laws.

Couch or armchair?

One of the important changes in analytical technique introduced by Jung concerned the abandonment of the traditional psychoanalytic couch. He preferred the face-to-face situation, thereby emphasizing the equality of the positions of the client and the analyst. They are two sides of one dialectical process, the epicenter of which is not in one of them, but somewhere between, in something third - in the Self, in the transcendental or in the dialectical synthesis of opposites. When both participants in the process sit opposite each other, they are open to each other and see their partner’s reactions. This is a natural and, in a sense, more respectful situation, closer to real life. Of course, it allows both the analyst and the client to exhibit the same patterns of interpersonal relationships that appear with other people, which is very important for understanding the client's difficulties outside the waiting room. In a face-to-face situation, nonverbal signals are clearly visible, and the communication space becomes denser and multi-level. Freud's preference for the couch had its reasons. As psychoanalyst Fairbairn noted, this anachronism is due to the fact that Freud began his practice as a hypnotist, and generally did not like to be looked into the eyes. In addition, Fairbairn believed that many analysts resorted to the couch for their comfort and safety, to escape the scrutiny of the client and to protect themselves from his demands.

It is impossible to say unambiguously which position is ideal for analysis. Most Jungian analysts prefer to have both a couch and an armchair or sofa in their waiting room so that the client can lie down if desired. It is better if the choice remains with the client himself and depends on the current situation in the analysis.

Free association method

General instructions at the beginning of the analysis there is a proposal to relax, enter a half-asleep state with free-floating attention and say absolutely everything that comes to mind. In this case, the emphasis is on verbalizing all thoughts and feelings that arise, even if they seem insignificant, unpleasant or stupid, including those related to the analysis and the personality of the analyst. This is how the main method is ideally used - the method of free association. In fact, Freud and Jung were the first psychologists to study this phenomenon. Freud - purely empirically, based on his clinical observations, Jung - strictly scientifically, inventing the word association test.

The method is based on the idea that truly free associations of a person who has managed to abandon rational thinking are not at all random and are subject to a clear logic - the logic of affect. However, in the Freudian interpretation, such a chain of associations, if resistance can be overcome, necessarily leads to the core of a mental conflict - a complex and early traumatic experience that underlies its formation. Thus, it is assumed that all the links in this chain are connected and the further we move, the closer we are to finding out the essence. Therefore, Freud postulated the possibility of direct interpretations (if, at any beginning of association, you still come to the same result) and the fundamental admissibility of introspection. The paradox of using the Freudian version of this method is that, since the only source of all mental conflicts (the Oedipus complex) has been theoretically deduced, then in general there is no great need for free association, in any case, its specific content does not matter. It was this dogmatic speculative scheme that Jung objected to. He said that with the same success, instead of listening to the client, one could read some advertisement or any line from the newspaper. He discovered that the associations were like cobwebs or circles spreading out on the water from a thrown stone. They always revolve around affectively charged images and form a psychic fabric into which this image is tightly woven. Associations are not a means of bringing to the surface what has long been repressed. Being inextricably linked with the central images through their affective connotative aspects of meaning, they form the very matter of the psyche, the very way of life and functioning of our soul. In essence, each of the key images, pulling together a bundle of associations, has something universal, inherent in all people, that is, archetypal. Therefore, the Jungian application of this method is sometimes called circular (or circular) association, in contrast to the linear association in classical psychoanalysis. In Jungian practice, it is important to circle around the image, constantly returning to it and offering new associations until its psychological meaning becomes clear. Moreover, the point is not to extract some idea about this image, but rather to directly experience the image with all the associations attached to it. Only then can not a mental, purely rational understanding be born, but a psychological understanding, in which the object of knowledge is not pulled to the surface and degenerates into something flatter, but is studied in vivo in its inherent environment, remaining alive. Linear association represents the knowledge of mental life in the form of work or competition, in which the result is important. And we think that every next step brings us closer to our cherished goal. If there are delays along the way, then someone is definitely to blame. The classic definition of resistance relates specifically to resistance to free association. With circular association, we can take in the entire perspective and see that in some parts of the world's oceans a storm is raging, while in other places there is calm and good weather. We can see fluctuations in water temperature and salinity without judging the water as right or wrong. Depending on the client’s wishes, you can immerse yourself in the chosen place, feel yourself there, feel the deep currents. Perhaps today he is not yet ready to sail in bad weather. It needs time and some training. It is just important not to lose sight of these stormy waters. But there is no need to get there exactly, because the ocean is one, you can reach the bottom from any point. Thus, although the method of free association is used equally in psychoanalysis and Jungian analysis, it has different meanings, and if the former emphasizes the word “association,” the latter rather emphasizes the word “free.” We must remember that the task of this method is not to “bring the client to clean water”, but in organizing free access to unconscious content. This approach requires the analyst to abandon his own monoideas, which can lead the process of association and, as a result, impoverish the image. There is a temptation to lead the client to the same associations that the analyst has.

The essence of this method - contact with the unconscious - should be embodied in the most free, metaphorical, fantasy-filled atmosphere of analysis. If such an atmosphere has not formed, then any clear instructions will not give the desired effect. Let's give an example. In one of the dreams, the client gives birth to a board in the shape of a fish, blackened by time, on which there is a sign that it is a girl. The client's associations mainly related to unpleasant feelings associated with her femininity. The analyst has associations with blackened boards as icons and with fish as a symbol of Christ. However, the analyst's expression of these ideas or his attempt to bring the client's associations to a spiritual dimension may have been caused by an unconscious desire to distance herself from her painful experiences associated with the acceptance of her femininity. Later, the analyst remembered an image that unites both directions of associations - the image of the black Mother of God. It makes sense to consider the analyst’s desire to direct associations in his own direction from the point of view of countertransference.

IN in this case the analyst elevates and idealizes the client, which was confirmed by the further course of the analysis, but this idealizing reflection may be necessary for her to accept her own femininity. Of course, circular association does not stop at two dominant directions of association. Here it can draw our attention to the client's relationship with her daughter, her inner child, and what is born in the analysis, to how much she feels like a black fish in the dark waters of the unconscious, to her drawings in black (blackened by time) and etc. But such work cannot be done in one analytical session. The entire lengthy analytical process can be considered as circular

On July 26, 1875, the founder of analytical psychology, Carl Gustav Jung, was born. AiF.ru spoke about the discoveries that made the psychiatrist famous throughout the world psychologist Anna Khnykina.

Complexes, archetypes and the collective unconscious

Carl Gustav Jung known as a follower of Freud who continued the development of psychoanalytic theory. True, he did not follow Freudian traditions, but went his own way. Therefore, their cooperation was not so long. The concept of the collective unconscious was the main reason for the differences in views between them.

According to Jung, the personality structure (he called it the soul) consists of the Ego, the Personal Unconscious and the Collective Unconscious. The ego is what we used to call consciousness, or everything we mean when we say “I”. The personal unconscious is personal experience, for some reason forgotten or repressed, as well as everything that we don’t seem to notice around us. The personal unconscious consists of complexes - these are emotionally charged groups of thoughts, feelings and memories. Each of us has mother and father complexes - emotional impressions, thoughts and feelings associated with these figures and the scenarios of their life and interaction with us. A common power complex in our time is when a person devotes a lot of his mental energy to thoughts and feelings about control, dominance, duty, and submission. The inferiority complex, etc., is also well known.

The collective unconscious contains thoughts and feelings that are common to all people, the result of our shared emotional past. As Jung himself said: “The collective unconscious contains the entire spiritual heritage of human evolution, reborn in the structure of the brain of each individual.” Thus, the collective unconscious is passed on from generation to generation and is common to all people. Examples include mythology, folk epic, as well as the understanding of good and evil, light and shadow, etc.

By analogy, just as complexes make up the content of the personal unconscious, the collective unconscious consists of archetypes - primary images that all people imagine in the same way. For example, we all react in approximately the same way to parents or strangers, death or a snake (danger). Jung described many archetypes, among which are the mother, the child, the hero, the sage, the rogue, God, death, etc. Much of his work is devoted to the fact that archetypal images and ideas are often found in culture in the form of symbols used in painting, literature and religion. Jung emphasized that symbols characteristic of different cultures often show striking similarities precisely because they go back to archetypes common to all humanity.

How is this applied today?

Today, this knowledge is widely used in the work of psychologists and psychotherapists of all directions. It’s quite difficult to underestimate the word “complex” or “archetype” in the work of a psychologist, would you agree? At the same time, the analyst does not label you, but knowledge about the nature and scenario of archetypes and your complexes helps to better understand your personal “psychic kaleidoscope.”

Analytical psychology

After receiving a medical degree in psychiatry from the University of Basel, young Jung became an assistant in a clinic for the mentally ill under the direction of Eugene Bleuler, the author of the term “schizophrenia.” Interest in this mental illness led him to the works of Freud. Soon they met in person. Jung's education and depth of views made a tremendous impression on Freud. The latter considered him his successor, and in 1910 Jung was elected the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. However, already in 1913 they broke off relations due to differences in views on the unconscious, as I said above - Jung identified the collective unconscious, with which Freud did not agree, and also expanded and supplemented the concept of “complex” to the form in which it has survived to this day. And then Jung went on his own inner path. His autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, begins with the statement: “My life is the story of the self-realization of the unconscious.”

As a result of this “self-realization of the unconscious,” Jung developed a whole complex of ideas from such different fields of knowledge as philosophy, astrology, archeology, mythology, theology and literature and, of course, psychology, superimposed on his psychiatric training and Freud’s ideas about the unconscious. The result was what is today called analytical psychology.

Plus, Jungians (that’s what psychologists who adhere to Dr. Jung’s theory call themselves - analytical psychologists) actively use a range of other psychological methods: art therapy, psychodrama, active imagination, all types of projective techniques (such as analysis of drawings), etc. Jung especially loved art therapy - creativity therapy. He believed that through continuous creative activity one could literally prolong one's life. With the help of creativity (art therapy), any spontaneous types of drawing, especially mandalas (a schematic image or design used in Buddhist and Hindu religious practices), deep layers of the psyche are released.

How is this applied today?

Psychoanalysts around the world are divided into Freudians and Jungians. An orthodox Freudian psychoanalyst will place you on the couch, sit behind the head of the head and listen to you with a minimal manifestation of his presence 2-3 times a week for 50 minutes. All visits, including missed ones, are paid. Time does not change or move, even if you work every other day and are unable to comply with agreements on your work schedule. But when you express a desire to find out why the analyst is so unfair to you and does not want to get into your position, you will be asked a couple of questions about why everything in your life is so inconvenient? And also who is usually inclined in real life to enter into your circumstances and adapt to you?

The Jungians approach things differently. As a rule, this is once a week, and the conditions can be negotiated and be more flexible. For example, sessions missed for valid reasons can be worked out at another time. It is not at all necessary to lie down on the couch; you can sit on armchairs and talk, as you are used to in ordinary life. Also, in addition to the dialogue, you may be asked to comment on the image, fantasize out loud, and then draw your fantasy or feeling, imagine someone opposite you and talk to him, moving first to his place, then back to yours, they may be asked to make something something made of clay or sand...

The boundaries and rules of communication between the analyst and the patient still remain quite strict, which determines the quality of the contact and, accordingly, the work.

Today we can safely say that all areas of psychotherapy and practical psychology are rooted in analytical and projective practice. Thus, analytical psychology is something that combines basic knowledge of psychoanalytic practice, the collective centuries-old experience of people working with their inner world and its self-expression and modern achievements in the science of the soul - psychology.

Concept of psychological types

Jung introduced the concepts of extraversion and introversion as the main types of personality orientation (ego orientation). According to his theory, which has been richly supported by practice around the world for about 100 years, both orientations exist in a person simultaneously, but one of them usually leads. Everyone knows that an extrovert is more open and sociable, while an introvert is all about himself. This is the popular version of these concepts. In fact, everything is not quite like that; extroverts can also be closed. An extrovert's psychic energy is directed outward - towards the situation and the people around him, his partners. He influences all this himself, as if bringing the situation and surroundings into the “right form”. An introvert acts in exactly the opposite way, as if the situation and surroundings are influencing him, and he is forced to retreat, make excuses or defend himself all the time. In his book Psychological Types, Jung provides a possible biological explanation. He says that there are two ways of adaptation to the environment in animals: unlimited reproduction with a suppressed defense mechanism (as in fleas, rabbits, lice) and a few offspring with excellent defense mechanisms (as in elephants, hedgehogs and most large mammals). Thus, in nature there are two possibilities for interaction with environment: You can protect yourself from it by building your life as independently as possible (introversion), or you can rush into the outside world, overcoming difficulties and conquering it (extroversion).

Later, Jung supplements his theory of psychotypes with four main mental functions. These are thinking and feeling (rational), sensation and intuition (irrational). Each of us has each of these functions, in addition, each function can be oriented outward or inward and can be extroverted or introverted. In total, we get 8 different mental functions. One of them is the most convenient for adaptation, therefore it is considered the leading one and determines the personality type of the same name according to Jung: thinking, feeling, sensing or intuitive (extroverted or introverted).

How is this applied today?

The leading personality type for a practicing psychologist is not difficult to determine, and this gives a lot of information about a person, in particular about his way of perceiving and delivering information and adapting to reality.

For example, if a person’s leading function is thinking, it will be difficult for him to talk about his feelings and sensations, he will reduce everything to facts and logic. A person with leading extroverted thinking lives under the yoke of a sense of justice. Most often these are military personnel, directors, teachers (mathematics, physics). All of them, as a rule, are tyrants, since they have strong cause-and-effect relationships, it is difficult for them to imagine that for some reason they can be violated, they always focus on objective facts of the world around them that have practical significance.

But for example, a person with leading introverted intuition will be focused on the inner world and his own ideas about external reality, he calmly treats the people and objects around him, preferring to live his life inside rather than making an impression on the outside.

Based on Jung’s typology, a lot of simplified similarities have been created, the most famous of which is socionics.

Associative method

It all started with Freud's method of free association. According to Freud, you must give an association to an association that has just arisen. For example, you are bothered by a black raven outside the window (A), you should tell the psychoanalyst what pops up in your memory in connection with this image (B). Then the analyst will ask you to find an association (C) for the association that has arisen (B) and so on down the chain. As a result, you are supposed to tap into your Oedipus complex.

Jung once drew attention to the fact that people think about some words in an associative series longer than others. He thought that strong emotions cause confusion or confusion in the head, and for this reason it is more difficult to give a strong reaction. Thus was born Jung’s associative experiment, which is beautifully depicted in the film “ Dangerous method" In this experiment, Jung proves that the key value is the time spent building the association. Later, thought-provoking words are analyzed (usually for more than 4 seconds) and the meanings of the associations are interpreted.

How is this applied today?

Subsequently, on the basis of his associative experiment and Freudian free association, Jung created a method of amplification, when around one image (a raven in our example) many associations, images from cultural heritage, mythology, art are collected, leading the patient to an awareness of the complex behind it.

Dream theory

From the point of view of Jung's theory, the influence of dreams constantly compensates and complements the person's vision of reality in consciousness. Therefore, awareness and interpretation of dreams in the analytical process with a psychologist allows us to pay explicit attention to the unconscious in the psyche. For example, a person may become angry with his friend, but his anger quickly passes. In the dream, he may feel intense anger towards this friend. A dream preserved in memory returns a person’s consciousness to an already experienced situation in order to draw his attention to a strong feeling of anger that was suppressed for some reason.

One way or another, a dream is seen as a breakthrough of unconscious content into consciousness.

When a patient tells a psychoanalyst his dream, the latter can use not only the patient's associative series, but also knowledge about archetypes, hierarchy and structure of symbols. Fairy-tale and mythological scenarios also allow us to interpret dreams.

How is this applied today?

Psychoanalysts and analytical psychologists interpret dreams and this is part of their work in the same way as the initial interview, active imagination or association test. You may be asked at your first psychoanalysis session about your most important dreams or what you may have dreamed in the run-up to your first visit. For an analyst this will be very important information, not only diagnostic, but also prognostic in nature - often the first dream in the analysis describes future work.

K. G. Jung (1875-1961), a Swiss psychiatrist, at the beginning of his career was also influenced by the first works of S. Freud. In the mental life of patients, C. Jung discovered a significant role of spiritual components. And he sought to understand the role of spirituality in human nature.

K. Jung views the structure of the psyche as the interaction of consciousness, the individual unconscious and the collective unconscious. Consciousness includes self-awareness and ensures the integrity and stability of the individual. The individual unconscious contains the psychic energy of the individual.

The collective unconscious represents a deeper layer in the structure of the psyche and contains its deep spiritual foundations. The collective unconscious, noted C. Jung, contains the entire spiritual heritage of human evolution. He believed that the content of the collective unconscious is formed due to heredity and is the same for all humanity. K. Jung sought to grasp at least some fundamental principles in the dynamics of the spiritual unconscious. He put forward and substantiated the idea that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images, which he designated as archetypes, or primary models. An archetype is an innate spiritual predisposing ideas, impulses, under the influence of which people implement universal models of perception, thinking, and behavior in response to specific situations. C. Jung described a whole series of archetypes, among them he identified the self, person, shadow, etc.

The structure of personality, according to K. Jung, is a capacious, psychologically rich formation. It includes universal, racial, cultural, and individual traits. Further, he sought to generalize the differences between people that manifest themselves in their attitude towards the world. K. Jung identified two universal types of orientation or types of life orientation: extraversion and introversion. The first is manifested in the predominance of interest in the outside world. These people are open, sociable, active and make contacts. Introverts are reserved, immersed in the world of their thoughts and experiences, and uncommunicative. The individual has a predominant extroverted or introverted orientation. This typology, which became classic in psychology, was supplemented by C. Jung with another typology based on the predominance of one of the main mental functions: thinking, sensation, feeling, intuition. He identified psychological types: thinking, feeling, sensing, intuitive.

And finally, another direction in the teachings of K. Jung is the concept of personality development. Three new provisions can be distinguished in it. First: personality development is carried out as a dynamic evolutionary process that continues throughout life and is most active at the stages of mental maturity. Positive, great value acquires a person’s awareness of his spiritual, religious and even mystical experience. This position directly opposes the Freudian idea of ​​early childhood experiences and childhood traumas as decisive factors in personal development.

Second position. The ultimate goal in life is “gaining selfhood,” which is the result of the desire of various components of the personality for unity. The main process of this movement is the process of individualization or integration of opposing intrapersonal tendencies. The result of the individualization process is self-realization.

Swiss C. G. Jung (1875 – 1961) graduated from the University of Zurich. He trained with psychiatrist P. Janet, then opened his own psychiatric laboratory and during this period became close to Freud, who had a decisive influence on Jung’s scientific views. Later, disagreements arose related to different approaches to the analysis of the unconscious.

Unlike Freud, according to Jung, “not only the lowest, but also the highest in personality can be unconscious.” Disagreeing with Freud's pansexualism (universalism), Jung considered libido to be a generalized psychic energy that can take different forms. There were also differences in the interpretation of dreams and associations. If Freud considered symbols to be substitutes for repressed objects and drives, then Jung assured that a sign, consciously used by a person, replaces something else, and a symbol is an independent dynamic unit. The symbol does not replace anything; it reflects the mental state that a person is experiencing at the moment. Therefore, Jung was against the symbolic interpretation of dreams and associations according to Freud. He believed that it was necessary to follow a person’s symbolism into the depths of his unconscious.

Jung also disagreed with Freud on issues of psychocorrection. Freud believed that the patient's dependence is permanent and cannot be reduced, i.e. he adhered to the concept of directive therapy, and Jung believed that during psychotherapy, dependence on the doctor should gradually decrease, especially in the last phase of therapy, he called this phase transformation.

In 1912, after the publication of Jung’s book “Symbols of Transformation,” a final break with Freud occurred, painful for both.

Jung came to the idea that his interpretation of symbols allows him to analyze not only people's dreams, but also myths, fairy tales, religions, and art.

Jung explored European, Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan cultures, studied their symbolism and made one of his most important discoveries - he discovered the collective unconscious.

According to Jung, the personality structure includes three parts - the collective unconscious; individual unconscious; consciousness. The second and third parts are purely personal lifetime acquisitions, and the collective unconscious is the memory of generations, i.e. that psychological inheritance with which a child is born. Jung wrote: “The collective unconscious is like the air that everyone breathes and that belongs to no one.”

The content of the collective unconscious includes archetypes, i.e. forms that organize the mental experience of an individual. Jung called archetypes “primary images,” because they are associated with mythology and fairy tales, their themes. Archetypes organize not only individual fantasy, but also collective fantasy. It is the archetypes that underlie the myths and religion of the people; they determine the self-awareness of the people.

Jung considered the following archetypes to be the main archetypes of the individual unconscious: Ego, Persona, Shadow, Anima (or Animus), Self.

The Ego and Persona are easier to understand than the other main archetypes, which are difficult to reflect on by the person himself.

The ego is the central element of personal consciousness; it, as it were, collects scattered data personal experience into a single whole, forming from them a holistic and conscious perception of one’s own personality. At the same time, the Ego seeks to resist everything that threatens the fragile coherence of our consciousness, tries to convince us of the need to ignore the unconscious part of the soul.

A persona is that part of our personality that we show to the world, how we want to be in the eyes of other people. A persona includes our typical roles, style of behavior and clothing, and ways of expression. She has both positive and Negative influence on our personality. A dominant person can suppress a person’s individuality, develop conformism in him (accommodation, passive acceptance of the existing order of things, prevailing opinions, etc.), the desire to merge with the role that the environment imposes on a person. At the same time, the Persona protects us from environmental pressure, from curious glances trying to penetrate a person’s soul, and helps in communication, especially with strangers.

The shadow is the center of the personal unconscious. Just as the Ego collects data about our external experience, so the Shadow focuses and systematizes those impressions that have been repressed from consciousness. Thus, the content of the shadow are those aspirations that are denied by a person as incompatible with his person and with the norms of society. Moreover, the more the Person dominates the personality structure, the greater the content of the Shadow, since the individual needs to repress an increasing number of desires into the unconscious.

The differences between Freud and Jung concerned most of all the role of the Shadow in the structure of personality. Jung considered it just one of the components of the personality structure, and Freud put it at the center and examined precisely its content as the main thing in the structure of the personality. Jung considered it necessary to pay attention to the Shadow, because the technique of dealing with the Shadow helps to overcome its negative influence.

Anima (for a man) or animus (for a woman) are those parts of the soul that reflect intersex relationships, ideas about the opposite sex. Their development is greatly influenced by their parents (a boy’s mother and a girl’s father). This archetype largely shapes human behavior and creativity, as it is a source of projections and new images in the human soul.

The Self, from Jung’s point of view, is the central archetype of the entire personality, and not just its conscious or unconscious part, it is “the archetype of order and integrity of the personality.” Its main meaning is that it does not oppose different parts of the soul (conscious and unconscious) to each other, but connects them so that they complement each other.

In development, the personality becomes more and more holistic, it individualizes and becomes free in self-expression and self-knowledge.

This idea of ​​personality development is presented in the works of Jung already in the 50s of the 20th century. By this time, he had developed provisions on the role of consciousness in the spiritual growth and behavior of the individual.

The transformations of some of the provisions of psychoanalysis were typically Jungian. This confirmed that Jung’s concept was open to new things and flexible at its core, in contrast to Freud’s orthodox theory.

Based on the structure of the soul, Jung creates his own typology of personality. He identifies two personality types - extroverts and introverts. In the process of individualization, introverts pay more attention to the inner part of their soul and build behavior based on their own norms and beliefs. Extroverts, on the contrary, are more person-oriented, i.e. to the outer part of your soul. They are well oriented in the outside world and base their activities on the norms and rules of the surrounding world.

If an introvert is threatened by a break with the outside world, then for extroverts the danger is the loss of themselves. In extreme cases, extroverts are dogmatic orthodoxies, and introverts are fanatics.

But the Self and the desire for integrity do not allow one side of the personality to completely subjugate the other. Like Freud, Jung often illustrated his conclusions with references to one or another historical figure. Likewise, in describing extra- and introverts, he, in particular, mentioned the famous Russian writers Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, classifying Tolstoy as a typical extrovert, and Dostoevsky as an introvert.

The development of the Self is associated not only with personality typology (the division into exta- and introverts), but also with four of the main mental processes - thinking, feeling, intuition and sensation.

Jung believed that each person is dominated by one of these processes, which, in combination with intro- or extraversion, individualizes the path of personality development. Thinking and feeling characterize active people who are capable of making decisions, while sensation and intuition rather characterize the way people receive information; these are more contemplative people.

Jung considered unconscious structures to be the main content of the soul; he did not deny the possibility of awareness of unconscious structures, and he considered this process to be the most important in a person’s personal growth. One of the options for self-awareness could be psychotherapy, in which a psychotherapist helps the patient understand himself, regain his integrity, the Self.

Jung's main works:

Analytical psychologists: theory and practice. – M., 1968.

The phenomenon of spirit in art and science. – M., 1992.

Problems of the soul of our time. – M., 1993.

Archetype and symbol. – M., 1991.

27. Alfred Adler .Individual psychology

A. Adler (1870 – 1937) graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Vienna and worked as an ophthalmologist. During medical practice, an interest in psychiatry and neurology appeared. In 1902, he was one of the first to join S. Freud's club, and in 1910, at Freud's suggestion, he became the first president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. But he soon developed ideas that contradicted Freud's views, and in 1911 he outlined the reasons for his differences with Freud and resigned as president of the psychoanalytic society, then he organized his own group, the Association for Individual Psychology.

After the First World War, Adler was interested in educational issues: he founded the first educational clinic, an experimental school, in which he embodied his educational ideas. Adler attached particular importance to working with teachers, and to help parents he organized consultation centers at schools. By 1930, there were 30 such centers in Vienna alone.

In 1935, Adler moved to the USA, worked as a psychiatrist and at the same time held the position of professor of medical psychology. At this time, he was already the founder of a new socio-psychological direction. His theory is a holistic system of personality development. Adler denied the positions of Freud and Jung about the dominance of unconscious drives in a person’s personality and behavior, drives that pit a person against society. Not innate drives, not innate archetypes, but a sense of community with other people, stimulating social contacts and orientation toward other people, is the main force that determines human behavior and life, Adler believed.

The concepts of Freud, Jung and Adler were united by the fact that they believed that a person has a certain nature inherent only to him alone, which influences the formation of personality.

Z. Freud, at the same time, attached decisive importance to sexual factors, Jung - to primary types of thinking, and Adler emphasized the role of social interests. Adler was the only one of them who considered it important to preserve the integrity of individuality in the individual, the desire to realize and develop it.

So, Adler's contribution to psychology was the idea of ​​the integrity and uniqueness of the individual. No less important is his idea of ​​“the creative self.” Adler’s “I” is an individualized system that can change the direction of personality development, giving a person’s experience a different meaning.

Adler's theory is a well-structured system that includes several basic provisions that explain the options for personality development:

Fictitious finalism;

Striving for excellence;

Feelings of inferiority and compensation;

Public Interest;

Life style;

Creative "I".

Adler took the idea of ​​fictitious finalism from the German philosopher Hans Feiginger, who wrote that all people navigate life through constructions or fictions that organize and systematize reality, determining our behavior. He also took from him the idea that the motives of a person’s actions are determined to a greater extent by hope for the future, rather than by past experience. This ultimate goal, hope for the future, may be a fiction, an ideal that cannot be realized, but such a goal turns out to be a stimulus for a person for his aspirations. A healthy person can free himself from fictitious hopes and see the reality as it is. Adler believed that lifestyle is the determinant that determines a person's experience. It is associated with a sense of community, one of the three innate unconscious feelings in the structure of the human self. A sense of community or public interest is the core that supports the structure of a lifestyle, the content of this style. The sense of community may remain undeveloped, then it becomes the basis of an asocial lifestyle, the cause of neuroses and conflicts. The development of a sense of community is associated primarily with close relatives, especially the mother. It does not develop in spoiled children and can become an obstacle to personal growth.

Man creates himself as a personality from the material of heredity and experience. The creative “I,” according to Adler, is a kind of enzyme that acts on the facts of the surrounding reality and transforms these facts into a person’s personality, “a personality that is subjective, dynamic, united, individual and has a unique style.” The creative “I” gives meaning to a person’s life, creates its goal, the means to achieve the goal.

In contrast to Freud, Adler emphasized that people are not pawns, but conscious entities that independently and creatively create their lives.

Two more innate and unconscious feelings that Adler named are the feeling of inferiority and the desire for superiority. Both of these feelings are positive for self-improvement. Adler believed that they stimulate both individual development and the development of society as a whole. There is even a special mechanism that helps the development of these feelings - compensation.

Adler identified 4 types of compensation: incomplete compensation, full compensation, overcompensation, imaginary compensation, or sickness.

He believed that the development of a sense of community allows the child to create an adequate scheme of apperception (perception). This is especially important for physical defects that do not provide the possibility of full compensation, which can cause isolation of the child and stop his personal growth.

With overcompensation, a person turns his knowledge to the benefit of people, his desire for superiority does not turn into aggression. Adler considers Demosthenes, who overcame his stuttering, and Roosevelt, who overcame his physical weakness, to be an example of overcompensation.

Incomplete compensation leads to the formation of an inferiority complex, anxiety, uncertainty, envy, and tension.

The inability to overcome one's defects leads to imaginary compensation, when the child begins to exploit his shortcomings and extract privileges from attention and sympathy. Imaginary compensation stops the growth of personality and brings up a limited, selfish person.

In the case of overcompensation in children with an undeveloped sense of community, the desire for self-improvement turns into a neurotic complex of power, dominance and mastery. They use all knowledge to “enslave” those around them, thinking about their own ambitions and benefits. These are potential avengers, aggressors, suspicious and cruel people. As an example, Adler cites Hitler, Nero, Napoleon, but this could also be a tyrant on a family scale.

Thus, one of the main personality traits that helps overcome difficulties and strives for excellence is the ability to cooperate with others. According to Adler, if a person knows how to cooperate, he will never become neurotic. Adler's theory is a kind of antithesis of the Freudian concept: it was able to have a huge impact on humanistic psychology, psychotherapy and personality psychology.