In the post-revolutionary period in Russia, the task was set of providing the national economy with modern and accurate maps. The Higher Geodetic Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography is formed (hereinafter the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography - GUGK under the Council of Ministers), and a special topographic and geodetic education of the country is being established.

Since 1923, standard metric scales, a system of layout and nomenclature of sheets were fixed for topographic maps, a unified cartographic projection was adopted, and a unified system of flat coordinates and symbols was introduced for all topographic maps. In the early 40s, measurements and computational work to determine the parameters of the ellipsoid were completed under the direction of F.N. Krasovsky.

In the pre-war years, serious work on mathematical cartography was carried out. The invaluable contribution to the development of cartographic projections for maps of the USSR and other territories by T.D. Salmanova, M.D. Solovyova, V.V. Kavraisky, F.N. Krasovsky and others.

During these same years, a number of major scientific reference atlases of the USSR and the world were created, which became the glory of domestic scientific cartography. Among them, the Great Soviet World Atlas (BSAM) is of great interest.

Research activities, initially developed mainly in higher school, was further strengthened as a result of the organization in 1928 of the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography, which further made a great contribution to the development of the scientific foundations of state mapping of the country. In 1978, the institute was named after its initiator and inspirer - F.N. Krasovsky (1878-1948).

During these same years, using the research results of the Central Scientific Research Institute of Gas Research and Development, starting from 1938, the domestic cartographic industry has been producing school maps and atlases for various school courses in geography and history.

All this contributed to the formation and evolution of cartography as a science. In the 1920s, it included in its tasks the development of scientific and technical methods and processes for compiling and reproducing maps, which was a major advance compared to previous purely geometric interpretations of cartography. At the same time, with increasing attention to the methods of making maps, the study of their essence remained in the shadows, although it is important for the purpose of creating new maps - in the development of their programs, in the collection, analysis and evaluation of sources. This gap became especially noticeable when Soviet cartography turned to creating major cartographic works like the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. The answer to the demands of life was the formation of cartography - a section of cartography, which initially included in its content the analysis of maps, the history of cartography and cartographic sources. At the end of the 30s, cartography began to be viewed as a science that studies maps (as a special way of displaying reality), methods and processes for their compilation and reproduction. In 1939, the first edition of cartology, a textbook for higher education, was published.

The theory of map projections was formed as an independent branch of cartography. V.V. did a lot during this period in developing the general theory of projections and their new groups. Kavraisky.

F. Engels’s idea that if science benefits production with its achievements, then production, for its part, gives immeasurably more for the development of science, finds a lot of confirmation in the pre-war development of cartography. When creating large cartographic works, important theoretical issues were solved along with practical problems. The experience of developing major comprehensive atlases containing substantial sections of economic maps was generalized and theoretically comprehended by Moscow State University professor N.N. Baransky in his Economic Cartography (1939-1940), which laid a solid foundation for the further development of this section of thematic mapping.

Work on creating topographic maps did not stop during the Great Patriotic War. The maps published in those years provided not only the needs of the national economy, but were also widely used for military purposes.

In the post-war years, the domestic cartographic service was faced with the task of updating topographic maps and restoring the almost destroyed geodetic reference network. Aerial photography plays a huge role in solving these complex and time-consuming problems. The result of the work was the completion by the mid-50s of continuous mapping of the entire territory of the country on a scale of 1:100,000. At the same time, surveys were carried out on larger scales, on the basis of which survey topographic maps were created (1:200,000, 1:500,000 and 1:1 000 000).

In the post-war years, great strides were made in thematic cartography. The geological (1:200,000 and 1:1,000,000), soil (1:1,000,000) and hypsometric maps of the USSR (1:2,500,000) created during this period were products of national importance. And the published unique series of wall maps of the USSR on a scale of 1:4,000,000, intended for higher educational institutions(geological, tectonic, geomorphological, etc.) is still a model for developing the content and design of maps of related maps.

Among the atlases created in the 60s - early 70s and still in demand, it should be noted the Marine Atlas, the Physiographic Atlas of the World (FGAM), the Atlas of the Oceans, etc. A significant contribution to the development of thematic economic and geographical mapping was made by the founder of domestic economic cartography N.N. Baransky (1881-1963). In his works published in the 30s, he formulated the basic principles for developing the content and analysis of economic maps, which remain relevant to this day and are used in the creation of maps and atlases on this topic. N.N. Baransky attached great importance to the geographical map in scientific geographical research. The role and significance of the map in geography is defined in his statement: the map is “the alpha and omega of geography”; geographical research begins and ends with it.

The post-war period of domestic cartography is characterized by the development of comprehensive mapping through the creation of a series of interconnected thematic maps on a single geographical basis, providing versatile, comprehensive description mapped territory.

Among the atlases of the post-war period that successfully used the principles of comprehensive mapping, special mention should be made of the Geographical Atlas for Secondary School Teachers, the first edition of which was carried out in 1954. This atlas has been reprinted several times and is still widely used not only as a reference manual for secondary school geography teachers , but also how tutorial when teaching students of a geographical specialty in pedagogical (and not only) universities.

The developed principles of comprehensive mapping were also used as the basis for regional scientific reference and local history atlases, which provide a comprehensive description of the territory - its nature, population, economy and culture.

The task of providing maps for rapidly developing types of mass tourism is very important (Decree on Mass Tourism 1969). The number of tourist maps and diagrams published annually amounts to 200-300 or more titles. However, the quality of many maps in terms of content, accuracy and design needs to be improved.

The successes of domestic cartography largely owe to the theoretical developments of the outstanding cartographer, organizer of cartographic education, KA. Salishcheva. Generalizing theoretical works of K.A. Salishchev form the foundation of Russian geographic cartography, which he defined as “systematic mapping of natural and socio-economic complexes.”

The map did not immediately become what we are used to seeing it now; in its development, it has come a long way from primitive images of terrain objects to a modern accurate drawing.

The simplest drawings of the area were known in primitive society and were made on tree bark, clay tablets, and cave walls. Preserved cave paintings found in Italy date back to the 2nd millennium BC, which depict fields, streams and irrigation canals. Experts consider this plan to be one of the oldest cadastral plans.

The credit for creating maps in the modern sense of the word belongs to scientists Ancient Greece. They established the spherical shape of the Earth, calculated its dimensions (Eratosthenes - 1st century BC), introduced parallels and meridians into scientific and practical use, and were the first to develop and apply cartographic projections.

Cartography of ancient times reached its highest development during the heyday of the Roman Empire in the works of the Greek mathematician, astronomer and cartographer Claudius Ptolemy (1st–2nd centuries AD). He summed up everything that had been achieved before him in cartography and geography, described the vast expanses of the then known part of the Earth, and developed new cartographic projections.

Maps of this period were schematic drawings. With the exception of the territory immediately adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, the rest of the Earth had a rather fantastic appearance on these maps. Ptolemy, for example, depicted the Caspian Sea as stretched from west to east, and considered the Indian Ocean to be a closed body of water. Nevertheless, his “Guide to Geography” amazed with the wealth of material and for many centuries acquired the reputation of a most authoritative publication.

In the Middle Ages (5th–11th centuries), the Byzantine Empire replaced the lost Roman Empire, and all science was entirely placed at the service of the Christian Church. Geographical science fell into decline. The main purpose of the cards was to illustrate theological works. The maps change their orientation, and instead of heading north they are oriented to the east, i.e. to the location of Paradise (Oriens (lat.)- East).

The rise of cartography is associated with that progressive period, which was called the Renaissance (XI-XVI centuries). The development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation. Ships began to be built that could sail far on the open sea. Marine charts appeared - portolans, characterized by a high degree of accuracy for that time.

In the 15th century Printing had a great influence on the development of cartography, which reduced their cost, increased accuracy and made widespread distribution possible.

The first of the maps, covering most of the Russian state, was compiled in the 2nd half of the 16th century and was called “ Big Drawing" The 16th and 17th centuries for the countries of Western Europe and Russia in particular were marked by a number of remarkable geographical discoveries Russian scientists and explorers. Ermak's campaign (1581) marked the beginning of the study of Siberia. Ivan Moskvitin (1639) reaches the shores Pacific Ocean, Semyon Dezhnev bypasses the north-eastern part of Asia by sea in 1648; Vladimir Atlasov passes Kamchatka, Erofey Khabarov in 1653 - Amur region. Extensive materials from these and other expeditions allowed the Russian geographer Semyon Remizov to compile his famous “Drawing Map of Siberia”, i.e. the first Russian geographical atlas.

Particularly extensive cartographic work unfolded during the reign of Peter I. The development of vast territories of Rus', meeting the needs of the young fleet, the construction of cities and fortresses on lands conquered from the enemy required the creation of new detailed maps throughout the entire territory of Russia.

The great Russian scientist M.V. played a huge role in the development of Russian cartography. Lomonosov. Since 1758, heading the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, he set the task of creating new maps, developed special instructions To carry out this work, he organized a number of large expeditions.

In the 19th century, the journey of Kruzenshtern and Lisovsky (North. Arctic Ocean, 1803), Nevelsky (Sakhalin, 1849), Belingshausin and Lazarev (Antarctica, 1819) wrote a new page in the book of great geographical discoveries. From the early XIX V. A number of high-quality geographical maps are being created in Russia. In 1865, a special ten-verst map of European Russia was created. It was so well made that it did not lose its practical value until the 20s of the 20th century.

Further development cartographic production in Russia began after 1917. The creation of the State Cartographic and Geodetic Service (now Roscartography) began with the signing on March 15, 1919 of the decree on the creation of the Higher Geodetic Administration.

In 1937, the first volume of the Great Soviet World Atlas (BSAM) was created, which was the first atlas in the history of Soviet cartography. At the World Industrial Exhibition in Paris, BSAM was awarded the Grand Prize.

The Great Patriotic War, of course, left its mark on the development of cartographic science. The main task of modern cartography was to provide maps to the troops who fought in the vast territories of our country, and then Western Europe. After the victory in the Great Patriotic War, cartographers began to complete the work of creating topographic maps at a scale of 1:1000000 for the entire territory of the country.

In 1954, the World Reference Atlas was published, which won universal recognition and was republished in 1967. Among the outstanding cartographic works of the 60s, one can also highlight the physical-geographical atlas of the world and the atlas of the peoples of the world.

Currently, new major cartographic works are published almost every year. More and more space among them is occupied by thematic or complex maps and atlases created according to the latest technologies using the latest achievements of science and technology.

All higher value acquire technologies for creating maps using geographic information systems(GIS) and computer graphics tools. A new industry is emerging and developing - operational cartography, which makes it possible to create cartographic works that are magnificent in design and state-of-the-art in the shortest possible time.

1.4 Map elements, other cartographic
works

We have repeated the word map many times, but still have not considered the map as a graphic document, have not studied the elements of the map, its properties, and have not even given a clearly formulated definition. As is commonly believed, the term “map” comes from the Greek word “chartes” - (papyrus paper) and came into use around the 15th century.

The standard for cartographic terms defines:

“A map is a reduced, constructed in a cartographic projection, generalized image of the surface of the Earth, the surface of another celestial body or extraterrestrial space, showing the objects located on them in a certain system of conventional symbols.”

This may not be completely flawless definition emphasizes three features of maps that are very important for understanding the features that distinguish a map from other images of the earth's surface, such as an aerial photograph or a landscape. This:

— mathematically defined construction;

― use of cartographic symbols (codes);

- selection and generalization of depicted phenomena.

The mathematically determined construction of maps involves the establishment of a strict functional relationship between the geographical and rectangular coordinates of points of the same name on the ground and on the map. Such a construction seems to include two actions for the transition from the physical surface of the Earth to its image on a plane. One of them is to project the earth's surface onto the mathematical surface of the earth - the geoid. This design is carried out orthogonally, with plumb lines perpendicular to the mathematical surface. But due to its complexity, the geoid in cartography is replaced by the surface of an ellipsoid of revolution that is very similar in shape, i.e. a figure obtained by rotating an ellipse around its minor axis (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1

It is with respect to this ellipsoid that all geodetic calculations are performed and map projections are calculated.

Another action is to depict the surface of the ellipsoid on a plane. It is impossible to unfold the surface of an ellipsoid on a plane without folds and breaks, i.e. Various types of deformations will occur, which in cartography are called distortions. The transition from an ellipsoid to a plane is carried out using map projections that express the relationship between the coordinates of points on the earth’s surface and the coordinates of the same points on a plane (map sheet).

When such a dependence is known, it is possible to take into account the distortions of a flat image and, therefore, determine the actual distances, areas, angles from the map with the required accuracy, that is, obtain from the maps the correct data on the location, size and outline of the depicted objects.

The use of cartographic symbols becomes evidently beneficial when comparing a map with an aerial photograph of the same area. The initial impression may not be favorable for the card. Indeed, an aerial photograph allows you to see the true picture of the earth's surface, but on a map it is replaced by a system of signs that seem to erase many of the individual features of terrain objects and thereby impoverish the image. However, it can be noted that the use of cartographic signs allows the following actions:

1) greatly reduce the image in order to cover at a glance a significant part of the earth's surface or the entire planet as a whole, while reproducing those objects that, due to reduction, are not expressed on the scale of the map. On aerial photographs, as the scale decreases, the details become difficult to distinguish, and then are completely lost;

2) show the terrain on the map, for example using contour lines;

3) show not only the appearance of the object, but also indicate its internal properties, for example, give quality characteristics agricultural land, show the temperature and salinity of water, the height and species of trees in forests and much more;

4) show the distribution of phenomena that are not perceived by our senses, for example, magnetic declination, distortion values, etc.;

5) exclude unimportant aspects of objects and highlight their common and essential features. In this case, the process of selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena is very important, a process called cartographic generalization. Generalization preserves on the map only those phenomena that are important in a practical or theoretical sense; it focuses on conveying the most significant features of the displayed phenomenon, primarily based on their purpose of the map. It allows you to distinguish the main from the secondary on maps, and find general patterns in individual properties.

Subject of cartography. A brief overview of the development of cartography.

1.1. The subject of cartography and its connection with other sciences

In accordance with the state standard, under cartography understand the field of science, technology and production, covering the study, creation and use of cartographic works.

Cartography is also defined as the science of displaying and studying natural and social phenomena through cartographic images as spatial figurative-sign models.

The first definition of cartography mainly characterizes the structure of cartography as a science and a branch of practical activity; the second focuses on the widespread use of maps and cartographic techniques in the cycles of physical, geographical, socio-economic sciences.

Cartography is divided into a number of disciplines. The main ones are: cartology, mathematical cartography, design and compilation of maps, preparation of maps for publication and publication of maps, as well as organization and management of cartographic production.

Cartology studies the general properties of geographic maps, types and methods of use. A special section of cartography forms story cartography, which studies the patterns of development of cartography as a science and branch of practical activity. Of great practical importance is the systematization of knowledge about cartographic sources.

Mathematical cartography studies ways to construct the mathematical basis of maps. Her main subject of research is the theory of map projections. The search for map projections is carried out for the purpose of drawing maps.

Design and Mapping studies the modeling of cartographic works and the methods and processes of their composition and editing.

Development of theory and practice of cartographic generalization one of the main tasks of this discipline.

Preparing maps for publication is aimed at studying the techniques of graphic and colorful design of maps in order to give clarity to the cartographic image and its technological suitability for reproduction. One of the main tasks of this discipline is the development of the theory of constructing sign systems and methods of artistic design of maps (cartographic design).

Card publishing is a discipline that studies the methods and means of producing copies of cards, and is one of the sections of general printing.

Organization and the economy of cartographic production was formed in our country in the middle of the last century as a result of the development of a network of cartographic enterprises. The objectives of this discipline include the study and development of methods for the operational management of production and economic activities of enterprises.

The structure of cartography is constantly evolving, bringing together or separating individual disciplines. For example, the introduction of computer technology into cartographic production has brought the processes of designing, compiling and preparing maps for publication closer together.

Cartography is in close connection and interaction with geodesy, photogrammetry, as well as mathematics, geography and art.

Geodesy provides cartography with the input data for calculating map projections and constructing cartographic images. Cartography, in turn, taking into account the scale of mapping, affects the accuracy of the geodetic basis.

Photogrammetry provides aerial and space photo materials for compiling (updating) maps. Photogrammetry uses methods for constructing and transforming cartographic projections, methods of cartographic images, and methods for compiling and editing maps.

Cartography has long been associated with mathematics. Initially, mathematical methods were used in the development of map projections. Currently, all disciplines that make up cartography use mathematical methods. This connection has especially strengthened with the use of electronic technology.

On modern stage development of cartography, strong connections were established between cartography and information theory. Information theory considers a map as a special form of storing and transmitting information. The organization of cartographic information service applies the developments of information theory.

The closest connection between cartography and geography is social. Geography provides cartographers with knowledge of the most important features natural conditions and socio-economic life of society. Geographers widely use the cartographic method in their research.

Cartography has long been using the techniques of fine art when constructing a cartographic image. Since the information conveyed on the card must not only be accurate and reliable, but also be aesthetically expressive, understandable by the consumer.

1.2. Brief overview of the development of cartography

The development of cartography is determined by the needs of society. Newly emerging needs determine the emergence of new cartographic works. As experience in creating maps and using the achievements of other sciences accumulated, the scientific foundations of cartography were created.

Cartographic images - drawings on tiles about the inhabited area - appeared in primitive society, before the birth of writing. The earliest that have come down to us belong to the peoples Ancient East(Egypt, Babylonia, China) and date back to 4000 - 3000 BC.

1.2.1. Cartography of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

The first maps in the modern sense appeared in Ancient Greece. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth, introduced the scientific concepts of meridians and parallels, and developed cartographic projections for the first time. The first projections were based on geometric methods of construction and were developed and used in the construction of sundials and star maps. The first star maps in the central (gnomonic) projection were developed by a Greek astronomer Thales of Miletus (6th century BC).

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus(2nd century BC). He introduced a coordinate system and proposed building maps by determining the position of points on the earth's surface by latitude and longitude. Hipparchus developed stereographic and equidistant conical projections.

The first maps of the Earth, taken as a sphere, were compiled by Marin of Tire(about 100 BC) a degree grid was drawn on the map. The first globe was built Crates from Malos (2nd century AD).

The ancient period of development of cartography ended in the era of the Roman Empire with the creation of works Claudius Ptolemy(90 – 168 AD), Greek scientist who lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy’s work “Guide to Geography” included a description of the then known projections, 27 maps of the world, 26 maps of the regions of the Earth (in conical, in stereographic projection), a list of settlements, mountains, rivers, the position of which was determined by geographical coordinates (by meridians and parallels).

Ptolemy's work was fundamental to cartography for the next millennium. During the Renaissance, when Europe mastered the cultural achievements of Ancient Greece, Ptolemy's work was republished many times.

The development of cartography in Ancient Rome was influenced by military affairs and the demands of the administration that governed the vast territory. To establish connections with distant provinces, paved roads began to be built. By decision of the Senate they were measured and each mile was marked stone pillar indicating distances.

Road construction materials formed the basis for the first road maps. These Roman road maps (4th century) entered the history of cartography under the name Peitinger tables (named after the historian, their first owner). Roman road maps were found in 1507.

1.2.2. Cartography in the Middle Ages (5th century – mid-17th century)

In the early Middle Ages, due to feudal fragmentation, the death of the Roman Empire (5th century) west– European cartography fell into decline. Against this background, successes stand out geographical knowledge in China, Armenia and the countries of the Arab world. In Armenia, Ptolemy's work became known at the end of the 14th century. Geographical knowledge in the Arab world found practical use for collecting taxes and fees. In turn, the development of trade contributed to the accumulation and dissemination of geographical knowledge. Scientists from the countries of the Arab world created an extensive geographical literature, rich in factual material, but the maps they created had a unique appearance. The outlines of geographical objects on these maps took the form of circles, arcs and straight lines.

China during the Middle Ages was an independent center of geographical knowledge. For example, the use of a compass, the invention of paper in the 2nd century, and wood engraving at the end of the 6th century speak about the high culture of China for its time. According to literary sources, it is known that the map of all of China was compiled by Pei Xiu (223-227), summarizing local sources.

The surviving text for the map contains instructions on using a grid of squares as a basis for orientation to the cardinal points and placement of objects on the map. Chinese in the 8th century. Eastern, central and southern Asia, as well as the northeastern coast of Africa and Arabia, were known from their own voyages in the first half of the 15th century.

In Europe early Middle Ages Only those elements of knowledge that could serve the interests of the church were recognized. Due to the decline of trade, the need for maps was negligible. Geographical maps took on the appearance of “monastic maps” for a long time. A description of the typical features of monastic maps is given by K.A. Salishchev: “the ocean washing the Earth, the central position of Jerusalem, in the east (at the top of the map) paradise with its original inhabitants, primitive outlines of land and seas, perspective signs of settlements and mountains, etc. .P.".

The rise of cartography in Europe is associated with the Renaissance, first in Italy (14th – 15th centuries), then in other European countries (15th – 16th centuries). The development of trade caused the rise of navigation. In ship navigation, a compass and navigational charts—portolans—began to be used (beginning of the 14th century). Initially, portolans depicted the Mediterranean and Black Seas. They depicted the coastline in detail, exaggerating objects important for navigation. Instead of meridians and parallels, the portolans were covered with a compass grid, which made it possible to determine the cardinal points.

For the first time, a linear scale is indicated on portolans (the numerical scale on maps appeared later, in the 18th – 19th centuries). Portolans were drawn on parchment (made from animal skin), which ensured their durability.

The great geographical discoveries achieved as a result of sea expeditions (15th – 17th centuries), and the astronomical determinations made, which made it possible to clarify the size of the Earth, influenced the development of cartography and increased the accuracy of maps. The need for maps has increased manifold. Sailors, many of whom, including Columbus, were cartographers, had a special need for them. Already in the 15th century. The Venetian Fra Mauro made a world map that reflected the results of the expeditions of that time. Italian art during the Renaissance influenced the design of frames, card fonts, artistic execution cartouches. With movement to the 16th century. trade routes from Mediterranean Sea In the Atlantic, the Netherlands became the center of cartographic activity. In the Netherlands, Abraham Ortelius created the first geographical atlas. The novelty of geographical knowledge conveyed by Ortelius's collection of maps (1570) finally excluded Ptolemy's maps from the number of modern maps of that time, classifying them as monuments of antiquity.

But among the achievements of this period, the most notable are the works of the Dutchman Gerard Mercator (1512 - 1594). His fundamental atlas of the world summarized all available information about the study of the Earth. Mercator was the first to introduce into scientific use the concept of “atlas”, the principles of constructing the mathematical basis of atlas maps.

Another outstanding work of Mercator is the world map. The map depicted the entire surface of the Earth (and not an eighth of it, like Ptolemy). For the map, Mercator developed a conformal cylindrical projection, which is still used in marine navigation charts.

The development of navigation, trade and the colonization of new lands increased the need for maps. Satisfying this demand became possible with the invention of printing and engraving. Until the middle of the 15th century. maps were reproduced by hand-drawing in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Engraving (pure engraving and etching) began to be used to reproduce maps.

The collection and systematization of extensive descriptions and maps of various lands served as the source material for the compilation of world maps. The territory of Russia on these maps was depicted based on descriptions of travelers who were in Russia and Russian materials that have not reached us. Thus, the first maps of Russia created in Europe were the map of Muscovy by the Venetian cartographer Agnese (1525) and the map of the Lithuanian Anthony Vida. A. Vid, using the knowledge of the boyar N.V. Lyatsky, who fled from the Moscow repressions of 1534, draws in 1540 and publishes in 1555 a drawing of Muscovy with part of Siberia. On Mercator's map of Russia, the territory of the country in the east is shown up to the river. Obi (1594).

It can be considered that maps of Russia published in Europe constitute an independent collection. They are historical evidence of the level of geographical knowledge until the end of the 17th century. and the contribution of Russian people to the study of Eurasia.

The first surviving document of Russian cartography is the “Book of the Big Drawing”. According to the surviving description, the “Big Drawing” (1550-1570) was a route map with settlements and a network of water and land routes.

In the 17th century The annexation of Siberia and its economic development were accompanied by the drawing up of drawings and descriptions of newly discovered lands. Drawings and descriptions were collected in the governor's offices and summary maps of Siberia were compiled from them. This is how it was compiled General drawing Siberia" by the Tobolsk governor Pyotr Godunov (1667) and the "Drawing Book" - the first Russian atlas of Siberia, consisting of 23 maps. These maps were printed from wooden boards. The maps were oriented south, did not have a grid, but contained a lot of economic, ethnographic meanings. For world cartography they were the only reliable sources about Siberia.

Until the end of the 17th century. Russian cartography developed in an original way. From the moment of its inception it had a state character.

Russian maps were compiled from real drawings and descriptions compiled on the spot. Domestic cartography is not characterized by hypothetical maps of Arabic and medieval Western European cartography.

During this period, the scientific foundations of cartography were developed in mathematical geography, which included related issues of astronomy, history and mathematical cartography.

1.2.3. Cartography in the 18th-20th centuries.

At 18 .r handicraft production of maps no longer satisfied the developing trade, navigation, and military affairs; reliable maps were needed.

In 1824, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established. Cartographic work was concentrated in the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, where until the end of the 18th century. the results of government surveys, materials from expeditions, sea voyages and other geographical studies were summarized. Ivan Kirillov, based on route surveys, published 37 maps of the Atlas of the All-Russian Empire, among which the General Map (1734) was especially important, reflecting the geographical knowledge of the country. In 1745, the “Russian Atlas” was published on 20 sheets under the leadership of L. Euler. M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographical Department, paid special attention to the scientific organization of cartographic work, the coordinate basis of surveys and maps.

The need for large-scale maps covering large areas has increased. For this purpose, the size and shape of the Earth are being clarified, surveying methods are being improved, and new projections are being developed. Under these conditions, geodesy is formalized as an independent discipline. The triangulation method developed in geodesy made it possible to create the basis for topographic surveys and the creation of topographic maps.

To the beginning of 19 V . Topography is distinguished from geodesy. During this period, issues of mathematical cartography, compilation and design of maps were reflected in works on geodesy and topography.

The development of small-scale and thematic mapping went beyond the interests of geodesy, so cartography began to emerge as an independent branch of knowledge. But for a long time, mathematical cartography remained the most developed in theoretical terms, while the compilation, design and publication of maps remained a craft.

At the same time, the growing needs for maps, necessary for the development of the countries' economies and military affairs, required organizational efforts. By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. In most European countries, state, mainly military, cartographic and geodetic services are created with their own institutes and production enterprises.

In Russia, such a service, the Card Case, was created in 1797. In 1812, the Map Case was transformed into Military– topographical case. From this time on, cartography in Russia came under military subordination.

Like other major maritime powers of the world, a Hydrographic Service was created in Russia (1827). One of its main tasks is the creation of marine navigation charts.

As a result of the activities of these services, by the mid-19th century. The main European countries carried out surveys and created topographic maps of their territories. (The relief was depicted with strokes). In Russia, topographic surveys based on triangulation were carried out in the western, central and southern provinces of the European part, the Caucasus and the border strip of the Asian part of the country. Based on this, a three-verst (1:126,000) and ten-verst (1:420,000) map of European Russia was created.

In the second half of the 19th century. military affairs and economic activities increased the requirements for the accuracy of maps. During this period, the relief on topographic maps begins to be depicted as contours, and the scale of surveys becomes enlarged. Filming that meets the new requirements is carried out mainly in possible theaters of military operations.

During the First World War (1914-1918), the production of topographic maps sharply increased and a new survey method began to be introduced - aerial photography. The use of topographic maps in map publishing and lithography (printing from flat printing plates) instead of labor-intensive engraving made it possible to increase the circulation of topographic maps. The transition to lithography made it possible to produce colorful maps (instead of black and white engravings).

The foundations of modern state cartography in our country were laid in 1919 with the creation of the Higher Geodetic Administration (now federal Service"Ros Cartography"). From this time in our country to the present day, the Military Topographical Service and Russian Cartography have been interacting. One of the main tasks of the civil service "Ros Cartography" is topographical study of the country's territory, surveying, updating and publishing state maps according to unified regulatory documents. In 1923, a system of metric scales and an associated unified system of graphics and sheet nomenclature were established based on the International Million Map.

A unified projection has been developed - the Gaus-Kruger projection, used for processing geodetic measurements and creating topographic maps. In the 90s of the 20th century. Research in the field of mathematical cartography continues successfully and the development of other theoretical issues has begun by F.N. Krasovsky (1878-1948), V.V. Kavraisky (1884-1954), N.A. Urmaev, M.D. Solovyov, Yu.M. Shokalsky (1856-1940), A.A. Borzov (1874-1939). The development of a higher cartographic school in the USSR is also associated with their names.

An important achievement of cartography of the Soviet period at the end of the 30s was the publication of the Great Soviet World Atlas (BSAM), which has not lost its scientific and methodological significance to this day, as well as the publication of wall school maps with a circulation of 3 million copies.

In the mid-1930s, stereophotogrammetric surveying began to change, significantly reducing field work.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), the military topographical and state cartographic and geodetic service provided the troops with modern topographical and special maps. In total, more than 930 million copies were printed. various cards. By the beginning of 1942, the creation of a topographic map at a scale of 1:100,000 for the European part of the country (up to the Volga) was completed. It was at this time that the State Map of the USSR was produced at a scale of 1:1000000. Methods of generalization and geographic editing of overview maps were developed there.

Foreign cartography in the pre-war period and during the Second World War (1939-1945) worked mainly for military purposes: grids of rectangular coordinates were introduced on sheets of topographic maps, and a transition was made within each country to a single projection of topographic maps. For vehicles, a topographic map of scale 1:200000 was adapted, for aviation - maps of scales 1:500000 - 1:1000000. In turn, the use of air and motor transport accelerated the production of filming work. During this period, large monopolies provided financial support to private business cartography. During the war, topographic units equipped with surveying map-publishing equipment were introduced into the armies, which reduced the production time of maps.

The main content of the cartographic production work in the mid-50s was: completion of the USSR mapping program on a scale of 1:100,000, publication and complete revision and creation of the second edition of a topographic map on a scale of 1:1,000,000 (1952-1958) and deployment of surveys in scales 1:25000 and 1:10000.

Based on the achievements of topographic knowledge of the country, in the late 50s, scientific and methodological foundations for small-scale general geographic mapping were developed. In 1954, a reference Atlas of the World was created, which summarized the topographic data of the earth's surface and hypsometrically conveyed the relief of the land and the bottom of the world's oceans.

Second World War required mobilization and implementation new technology into cartographic production not only of the USSR, but also of foreign countries. For example, the US military mapping service has become an organization of large production capacity. Its goal was to provide maps of territories that were of interest to the armed forces. With the formation of the NATO bloc (1949), measures were taken in the countries included in the bloc to unify the geodetic and mathematical basis, symbols, and border design of topographic maps.

In the 50-70s. Work has resumed on creating comprehensive atlases of individual countries and regions.

In the 60s, complex atlases of the union republics began to be published in the USSR, which are now assessed as national atlases of the republics.

The creation of complex thematic atlases dates back to this period: Marine Atlas in 3 volumes, Climatological Atlas of the USSR, Atlas of Agriculture of the USSR.

The achievements of Soviet cartography are recognized by the cartographic community of the world, and the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University becomes the scientific and cartographic center of the International Geographical Union.

A major achievement of domestic cartography of this period is the completion of work on the creation of a topographic map of the USSR at a scale of 1:25000. Created and periodically updated state topographic maps serve as the basis for design engineering structures, when creating a variety of cartographic products for the general public. Private enterprise cartography mainly produces mass products: educational, road, tourist maps and city plans that do not require large investments.

At the end of the last century, the theory and practice of using geospatial data, GIS, GIS technologies.

Development of new information technologies allows you to perform analysis spatial data, simulate the results of decisions made.

1.2.4. The main tasks of modern cartography.

The importance of cartographic products and cartographic information is constantly increasing. The importance of the territorial reference of a region (point) is increasing for such activities as public services, entrepreneurship, environmental research, etc. Currently, electronic technology makes it possible to quickly and in large quantities produce cartographic products. But traditional paper-based cartographic products are no longer enough. With the development of new information technologies, the population's need for cartographic information built into computer systems is increasing.

For example, the compilation of national interactive gazetteers and services related to cadastral works.

Fast and timely updating of cartographic products has always been an urgent task of cartography. Aerospace materials make it possible to quickly update and expand the content of traditional maps. But updating a specific map is no longer sufficient, and updating the databases will be required.

Currently, the costs of creating digital terrain models (DTMs) are equal to the costs of preparing maps for publication or even exceed them. At the same time, the created DTMs are not flexible. They do not allow taking into account all possible combinations of properties of topographic objects and all combinations of topographic objects. This is caused by the creative nature of obtaining and processing topographic information. Therefore, a clear formalization of knowledge about terrain objects and cartographic knowledge is one of the theoretical problems of cartography.

Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation

Federal state budget educational institution higher professional education

"NOVOCHERKASSK STATE RECLAMATION ACADEMY"

I.A. Petrova

CARTOGRAPHY

Lecture course for students directions 120700.62 - “Land management and cadastres”

Novocherkassk

UDC 528.9 (075) P 305

Reviewers: N.B. Sukhomlinova, Doctor of Economics, Professor of the Department of Land Management of the Federal State Budgetary Institution of Higher Professional Education of the Novosibirsk State Medical Academy; Zh.V. Roshchina, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, Associate Professor

departments engineering surveys FSBEI HPE NGMA.

Petrova, I.A.

P 305 Cartography [Text]: course of lectures / I.A. Petrova; Novocherk. state melior. acad. – Novocherkassk, 2013. – 64 p.

The presented course of lectures sets out questions that reveal the modern interpretation of cartography as a science and the field of engineering and technology for the creation and use of cartographic works. The essence and properties of maps as models of reality, their mathematical basis, methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps, and issues of generalization are considered. Particular attention is paid to the issues of the cartographic research method.

Key words: cartography, map, mathematical basis, generalization, research methods, map design.

INTRODUCTION

Cartography is widely used in the national economy. It plays a special role in land management and cadastre. Land management organizations draw up land use maps, cadastral maps and other agricultural maps, and also use them to solve various land management problems.

The “Cartography” course will introduce future specialists in the field of “Land management and cadastres” to the basics of cartographic display of geographic, thematic and special information, to the methodology and technology for creating original maps of various subjects, including for the needs of land management and land cadastre, as well as correct use cartographic method in research and management of land resources, their rational use and protection.

This course of lectures is compiled to assist students in studying the discipline.

LECTURE 1. THE CONCEPT OF CARTOGRAPHY

1.1 Subject and method of cartography

“Cartography” is the science of maps as a special way of depicting reality, their creation and use. This definition is enshrined by the International Cartographic Association. State standard cartographic terms defines cartography as a field of science, technology and production, covering the study, creation and use of cartographic works. Thus, cartography exists in three forms

the science of displaying and understanding natural and social phenomena through maps;

the field of technology and technology for creating and using cartographic works;

industry that produces cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.).

However, in addition to the listed three forms, cartography deals with the use

using maps, researching them and making cartographic forecasts.

In connection with the development of computerization, ideas about cartography have expanded. Her interests include not only the creation of maps, incl. electronic, but also the formation of databases and banks of digital cartographic information, GIS, etc.

The idea of ​​maps as models of reality allows us to consider subject of scientific cartography display and study of objects

nature and society, their location, properties, relationships and changes over time through maps and other cartographic models.

1.2 Theoretical concepts in cartography

Theoretical concept- this is a certain system of views on the subject and method of cartography.

The concepts summarize the past experience of science and try to assess trends in its development in the future, but at the same time they reflect today's understanding of the state and prospects of science. Currently, several theoretical concepts have taken shape in cartography.

The cognitive (or model-cognitive) concept is considered

defines cartography as the science of understanding reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality (in this interpretation, cartography has the closest relationship to the natural and socio-economic sciences and the theory of knowledge).

Communication concept in it, cartography appears as the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map as a channel of information, a means of communication, thus it is closely connected with information theory, automation, and the theory of perception.

Language (card-language) the concept treats cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map as a special test compiled using conventional signs; in this case, cartography acts as a branch of linguistics and semiotics (the science of language), and the subject of its research is cartographic sign systems.

Each of these concepts has strong real foundations.

Cartography appears, on the one hand, as a science of understanding the world, on the other, as a means of communication, and on the third, as a special linguistic education. Which indicates the versatility of cartography.

In the eighties of the last century, a new geoinformation concept began to take shape. According to it, cartography is considered as a science of systemic information and cartographic modeling of cognition of geosystems, and is closely related to the sciences of the Earth and society.

1.3 Cartography in the system of sciences

Modern cartography has strong two-way contacts with many philosophical, natural and technical sciences and scientific disciplines (Figure 1). Cartography takes advantage of their achievements, absorbs new ideas and technologies and at the same time provides them with an extensive field for the application of forces, contributes to the development of their theory and methodology.

Astronomy

and geodesic- CARTOGRAPHYMathematical

Figure 1 - Cartography in the system of sciences

In the closest contact with cartography are earth and planetary sciences- an extensive and highly ramified complex of geographical, geological-geophysical, environmental, planetological branches of knowledge, for which cartography serves as one of the main methods of knowledge and means of data systematization. The main area of ​​interaction is thematic mapping of nature and methods of using maps. Today it is impossible to even imagine the development of earth sciences in isolation from cartography. Moreover, the formation of many branches of science occurred thanks to the cartographic method. Mapping has become, for example, the basis for the study of the ocean floor and the surface of other planets, the development of relief morphometry, medical geography, etc. At the same time, another trend is observed: many new branches of thematic cartography arise at the intersections with the Earth sciences, and as a result, new types of maps appear , new methods of mapping and ways of using maps (for example, the rapidly developing environmental-geographical mapping).

Socio-economic sciences - economics, sociology, demography, history, archeology, regional politics, ethnography and many related disciplines, as well as the Earth sciences (and in combination with them), form the basis for thematic mapping and the use of maps. By providing

These sciences, a tool for spatial research, cartography itself is enriched with new methods (for example, economic and mathematical modeling, network planning), and develops new types of cartographic works.

Logical-philosophical sciences - reflection theory, modeling theory, formal logic, system analysis are actively in contact with cartography in the development of its theoretical concepts, sign systems (here it is necessary to recall the connections with linguistics and semiotics), problems and methods of modeling and system mapping. When studying the problems of perception of cartographic images, psychological methods are used.

Astronomical-geodetic sciences - astronomy, geodesy, gravimetry, satellite geodesy, topography provide cartography with data on the shape and size of the Earth and planets, their physical fields, and form the basis for drawing up general geographical and thematic maps. When creating a mathematical basis for maps, the results of astronomical and geodetic observations, satellite geodesy data, and satellite positioning are required. The basis for any large-scale maps is always topographic surveys of the area.

Mathematical Sciences- mathematical analysis, analytical geometry, spherical trigonometry, statistics and probability theory, non-Euclidean geometry, set theory, mathematical logic, graph theory, information theory and a number of other mathematical disciplines are directly in contact with cartography. Mathematics and cartography are united by strong historical ties; in the past, cartography in Russia was classified as “mathematical geography”. Today, mathematical disciplines are used in the development of cartographic projections, mathematical cartographic modeling, the creation of algorithms and programs for mapping and the use of maps, planning cartographic production, and the formation of information retrieval systems. There is not a single area of ​​mathematics that, one way or another, would not be in contact with modern cartography.

Technology and automation- instrument engineering, electronics, semiconductor and laser technology, chemical technology, materials science, printing and many other industries form the technical basis for the creation, publication and use of maps and other cartographic works. Connections with technology are manifested in the improvement and creation of new cartographic equipment, instruments, automatic systems and materials, in optimization production processes and technical and economic parameters of cartographic production. IN last years Contacts with the theory of control systems, cybernetics and computer science acquired particular significance. Thanks to this, cartography has been enriched with many of the best achievements of the modern scientific and technological revolution.

Remote sensing- a set of disciplines, including aerial, space and underwater photography, image processing and interpretation, photogrammetry, photometry, structuremetry, as well as space geoscience and monitoring. The main area of ​​interaction is topographical and technical

matic mapping. Survey data is used to compile, clarify and update maps, form digital information databases, and maps, in turn, are necessary for linking and deciphering remote sensing materials.

IN brief overview Only the main areas of science with which cartography comes into contact are named. In fact, it, one way or another, interacts with almost all branches of knowledge, even with such seemingly distant ones as medicine, architecture, geopolitics, etc.

1.4 Cartography structure

Cartography is an extensive system of scientific and technical disciplines. Some of them have a centuries-old history, others have emerged recently and are in their infancy.

1 General theory of cartography- a section that studies general problems, the subject and method of cartography as a science, as well as individual issues of the methodology for creating and using maps.

2 Mathematical cartography - a discipline that studies the mathematical basis of maps, developing the theory of cartographic projections, methods for constructing cartographic grids, analyzing and distributing distortions in them.

3 Design and Mapping studies and develops methods and technology for laboratory (office) card production.

4 Map design and cartographic semiotics They develop the language of the map, the theory and methods of constructing systems of cartographic signs, the artistic design of maps, and their colorful design. Within the framework of cartographic semiotics, the rules for constructing sign systems and using them (syntactics), the relationship of signs with displayed objects (semantics), the information value of signs, and their perception by readers (pragmatics) are studied.

5 Map publishing is a technical discipline that studies and develops the technology of printing, reproduction, and printing of maps, atlases and other cartographic products.

6 Economics and organization of cartographic production-industry-

is an economic discipline that studies the problems of optimal organization and planning of production, the use of cartographic equipment, materials, labor resources, and increasing labor productivity.

7 Using maps- a section of cartography in which the theory and methods of using cartographic works in various fields of practical, scientific, cultural, propaganda and propaganda activities are developed.

8 History of cartography studies the history of ideas, concepts, methods

Geography 11th grade Lesson No. Date 09/17/2015

Subject: Cartography. The importance of cartography in modern society.

Types of geoimages.

Target: give students an idea of ​​cartography as a science, determine its tasks at the present stage. Reveal the importance of cartography in modern society. Introduce types of geoimages. Improve note-taking skills.

Lesson type: lesson-lecture

Equipment: various types of maps, textbook, atlases

Lesson structure:

Plan

1.Cartography as a section of geography.

2. The main stages of the development of cartography.

3. The importance of cartography in modern society.

4. Types of geoimages.

During the classes

Learning new material.

Cartography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

Cartography occupies a special place in the system of geographical sciences. It is the science that studies the methods of creating and using maps. It is closely related to both physical and economic geography. Cartography methods are widely used in sciences such as geology, oceanology, history and others. Today, cartographic production uses a lot of materials from space photography, advances in automation and computer technology. The widespread use of maps in scientific research, the national economy, military affairs, transport development and many other areas of activity turns this scientific and technical area into an important branch of economic activity. However, at first cartography was based on the development of topography and geodesy.

Main stages in the development of cartography

A study of the history of cartographic science, based primarily on the research of K.A. Salishchev, made it possible to identify the main milestones in the development of cartography. The very first cartographic works appeared in primitive society. Evidence of this can be found in the simplest cartographic images among the peoples of Siberia and Far East; American Indians and Eskimos; Micronesians of Oceania. Drawings dating back to the third and second millennium BC have survived to this day. Ancient cartographic drawings are known among the peoples of the Ancient East and Egypt. The first scientific cartographic developments appeared in ancient Greece - the Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its dimensions, they were responsible for the first cartographic projections and the introduction of meridians and parallels into scientific use. The creator of the first image of the Earth was Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 546 BC). Greek thinkers initially imagined the Earth as a disk floating on the surface of the ocean, but already in the fifth century BC Parmenides suggested that the Earth was spherical. The head of the Library of Alexandria, Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC), made a great contribution to the development of cartographic science. It was he who carried out the closest to reality determination of the length of the earth's meridian. In his work “Geography,” Eratosthenes examined the question of the figure of the Earth, the size and shape of its inhabited land - the ecumene, showing the latter on a map.

Hipparchus (190 -126 BC) later proposed building maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth's surface by latitude and longitude. A detailed statement of the goals of geographical science, as regional studies, as well as general characteristics the state of geographical and cartographic knowledge was given by Strabo (about 63 BC -23 AD) in his “Geography” in 17 books. In this work, he summarized and systematized a large amount of factual material known at that time.

Theoretical basis cartographies were laid down by Claudius Ptolemy. In his work “Guide to Geography” in eight books, he predetermined the development of cartographic science for almost fourteen centuries. Ptolemy, developing the regional direction in the development of geography, represented its main task in the cartographic representation of the Earth. Criticizing the cylindrical projection, Ptolemy proposed conical and pseudoconical projections, which are still used in an improved form today. Despite the fact that Ptolemy considered land to predominate in area over the sea, and Indian Ocean considered as a closed pool, Ptolemy's work was recognized by cartographers and gained authority for a long time, thanks to the wealth of factual material, the thoughtfulness and rigor of its systematization.

In the IX - X centuries. In the countries of the Arab Caliphate, the so-called “Arab maps” appeared. The execution of these maps was subject to the dogmas of the Koran, which prohibited depicting people and animals, so the maps were drawn as diagrams that extremely abstracted reality, using compasses and rulers in the form of straight lines and circular arcs.

The further rise of cartography is associated with the advent of the Renaissance. At this time, the development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation, which required aids to help sailors navigate near the coast and on the high seas. This is how the compass and navigation maps- portolans (XIV-XVI centuries). Typical portolans did not take into account the sphericity of the Earth; instead of meridians and parallels, portolans covered compass lines showing the direction of the cardinal points of intermediate points. The invention of printing in the 15th century had a great influence on the development of cartography, after which engraving and printing of books came into practice. In the 16th century Western Europe were created favorable conditions, promoting the development of cartographic science and production. Great value To map open lands, there were enterprises for the exploitation of colonies - the Spanish “Chamber for Trade with India”, the Dutch and English “East India Companies”. These enterprises had special cartographic institutions in which extensive geographic and cartographic material was collected and processed, and geographic maps were also prepared for their own ships. The stable demand for geographic maps contributed to the emergence of a large number of private cartographic enterprises. Gerard Mercator (1512 - 1594) gained the greatest fame among the cartographers of that era, mainly thanks to his three outstanding works - the map of Europe of 1554, big map the world “for seafarers” of 1569 and the capital atlas of 1595. Mercator was the first to use a conformal cylindrical projection for a map of the world, explained its meaning, convenience and methods of application for navigation, marking the beginning of the development scientific methods using cards. Mercator used projections in accordance with the shape and position of the territories being mapped, as well as the purpose of the map.

Cartography also developed in Russia; in this regard, we can note the outstanding creation of Russian cartographers of the 16th century. - “Big Drawing for the entire Moscow State”, as well as the works of S. Remezov, in which extensive geographical material was collected and systematized (“Drawing Book of Siberia” (1701), “Chorographic Drawing Book” (1697 -1711), “ Service drawing book" (1702 --1730), etc.).

In the second half of the XVII - early XVIII V. cartographic work occupied a prominent place in the activities of the largest academies of sciences in Paris, Berlin and St. Petersburg. A major contribution to science was made by the astronomical and geodetic work of French scientists to determine the shape and size of the Earth. In England, in 1675, in order to facilitate the determination of longitudes at sea, the Greenwich Observatory was established, whose employees made a significant contribution to the development of cartography.

From the beginning of the 19th century. for armies it turned out to be necessary detailed and accurate maps areas, the creation of which was undertaken by military topographical services. At the same time, other, new directions of cartographic activity began to appear, brought to life by the development of natural sciences; geology, meteorology and soil science, as well as economics and statistics. Many innovations in cartography are associated with them; isotherms (A. Humboldt, 1817), pseudoisolines (N. Ravn, 1856), point method, tapes of cargo and passenger flows, etc.

In 1902, the Austrian geographer Karl Peuker expressed the idea of ​​​​the establishment of cartography as an independent science of graphic depiction of the world around us. Later, the German geographer Max Eckert published a cartographic work, “The Science of Maps, Research and Fundamentals of Cartography,” in which the tasks of scientific cartography included consideration of the entire variety of cartographic works, an analysis of the essence, tasks and purposes of maps, and the establishment of certain norms on the basis of which practical cartography carried out the construction of maps. Methods and processes for making maps and methods for studying them were not included by Eckert in the sphere of interests of scientific cartography.

The importance of cartography in modern society.

Maps allow a simultaneous overview of space within any limits - from small area terrain to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and relative position of objects, and allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the connections that exist between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of cards for practice.

Maps serve as a reliable guide on land and in the ocean, during the movement of troops and on tourist trips, for airship flights and for walking routes.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and a mandatory aid for command and control of troops and the organization of their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as the basis for surveys, design and transfer of engineering projects to nature. Now the best routes railways, highways and pipelines are not sought in the field, but are outlined using topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture for land management, land reclamation, measures to increase soil fertility, to combat erosion, and in general for recording and the most correct, effective use all land funds.

Maps constitute an indispensable aid for school and out-of-school learning. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination and the rise of a common culture. Without exaggeration, it is fashionable to say that maps are used to one degree or another in all spheres of human activity.

Great importance Maps were acquired as a means of scientific research, especially geographical research. Each geographical study, in one way or another, proceeds from existing maps and provides materials for their implementation and improvement.

Geographic maps, recording the position, condition and spatial connections of specific objects (phenomena), allow not only to economically and expressively present knowledge about the distribution of phenomena, but also to find patterns in this distribution. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main means of research.

Scope of use of cards as a means scientific research expanding rapidly as the overall pace increases scientific progress. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of computer science and in the development of modeling theory.

The study of computer science on the general problems of collecting, storing and transmitting knowledge allows us to more fully appreciate the merits of geographic maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information.

In geography, it is very important to be able to read maps.

The type of card can be determined by its name, the content of the card can be understood from the application.

What attracts attention on the map is, first of all, the color tones. Colors represent different things.

On a physiographic map, colors indicate elevations. You can draw a color scale that would indicate the depths of the oceans and seas and a scale indicating the lowlands and highlands of the continents.

On thematic maps, colors represent different phenomena. For example, states, climate, vegetation, soil, etc.

In addition to colors, general geographic maps also contain other symbols.

The map of geographical zones shows areas where the same plants and animals grow. Geographic zones differ from each other in humidity, heat and seasons. There are 11 of them in total: arctic deserts, tundra and forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forests, forest-steppe and steppe, semi-deserts and deserts, savannas, evergreen forests and shrubs, monsoon forests of the temperate zone, rain forests, mountain belt.

When familiarizing yourself with a map, it is especially important to know how to show and delimit features. Rivers should be shown in the direction of flow, cities should be marked with dots, Bays and peninsulas should be marked on three sides.

A cartographic image is made up of a number of geographical elements determined by the theme and purpose of the map. For example, the content elements of detailed terrain maps (topographic maps) are: water and land relief, vegetation cover and soils, settlements, routes and means of communication, state and administrative boundaries and centers, as well as some industrial, agricultural and cultural objects. On the fields geographical map and in places free from cartographic images, auxiliary graphics and texts are placed to facilitate the use of the map: map legend (a set of cartographic symbols used on the map, with necessary explanations); graphs for measuring distances, angles, areas, coordinates of individual points, slope slopes, etc. on a map; reference information about the time the map was compiled, the sources used, etc. Sometimes the fields of the map also contain profiles, diagrams, tables and text data that explain and complement the cartographic image itself.

General geographic maps are very common, on which the main subject of the image is the earth's surface itself with the objects located on it. Other maps are called thematic. They convey with greater completeness and thoroughness any element (or elements) included in the content of a general geographic map (for example, the relief of the earth’s surface), or show phenomena that are absent on general geographic maps, for example geological structure terrain, climatic conditions, etc., in connection with which there are different types of thematic maps - geological, climatic, etc.

The concept of geoimages. Classes and types of geoimages

The entire set of maps, images and other similar models can be designated by the general term - “geoimages”.

Geoimage- any spatio-temporal, large-scale, generalized model of terrestrial (planetary) objects or processes, presented in graphical form.

This formulation highlights the main properties inherent in all geoimages (scale, generalization, presence of graphic images), and indicates their specificity - these are images of the Earth and planets.

Geoimages represent the interior of the Earth and its surface, oceans and atmosphere, pedosphere, socio-economic sphere and areas of their interaction

Types of geoimages

Geoimages are divided into three classes:

flat, or two-dimensional - maps, plans, anamorphoses, photographs, photographic plans, television, scanner, radar and other remote images;

three-dimensional, or three-dimensional - anaglyphs, relief and physiographic maps, stereoscopic, block, holographic models;

dynamic three- and four-dimensional - animations, cartographic, stereocartographic films, film atlases, virtual images, etc.

Within each type there are dozens of varieties: maps of all kinds of subjects, photographs in different ranges, block diagrams in any projections and angles. But, in addition, there are many more combined geoimages that combine the properties different models. These are, for example, combinations of maps and images: photo maps, orthophoto maps, space maps.

Fig.1

Fig 2

Consolidation of what has been learned

-What is the importance of cartography for modern society?

- Name the main stages in the development of cartography.

III . Lesson summary

IV .Homework: write an essay “Maps are..”