Date of introduction 01.01.71

This standard establishes the rules for depicting objects (products, structures and their constituent elements) on drawings of all industries and construction. The standard fully complies with ST SEV 363-88. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2).

1. BASIC PROVISIONS AND DEFINITIONS

1.1. Images of objects should be made using the rectangular projection method. In this case, the object is assumed to be located between the observer and the corresponding projection plane (Fig. 1).

1.2. The six faces of the cube are taken as the main projection planes; the edges are combined with the plane, as shown in Fig. 2. Face 6 may be placed next to face 4. 1.3 The image on the frontal plane of projections is taken as the main one in the drawing. The object is positioned relative to the frontal projection plane so that the image on it gives the most complete idea of ​​the shape and size of the object. 1.4. The images in the drawing, depending on their content, are divided into types, sections, and sections.

Crap. 2 Damn. 3

1.5. View - an image of the visible part of the surface of an object facing the observer. To reduce the number of images, it is allowed to show the necessary invisible parts of the surface of an object in views using dashed lines (Fig. 3).

1.6 Section - an image of an object mentally dissected by one or more planes, while the mental dissection of an object relates only to this section and does not entail changes in other images of the same object. The section shows what is obtained in the secant plane and what is located behind it (Fig. 4). It is allowed to depict not everything that is located behind the cutting plane, if this is not required to understand the design of the object (Fig. 5).

1.7. Section - an image of a figure obtained by mentally dissecting an object with one or more planes (Fig. 6). The section shows only what is obtained directly in the cutting plane. It is allowed to use a cylindrical surface as a secant, which is then developed into a plane (Fig. 7).

(Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 1.8. The number of images (types, sections, sections) should be the smallest, but providing a complete picture of the subject when using the symbols, signs and inscriptions established in the relevant standards.

2. TYPES

2.1. The following names of views obtained on the main projection planes are established (main views, drawing 2): 1 - front view ( main view); 2 - top view; 3 - left view; 4 - right view; 5 - bottom view; 6 - rear view. In construction drawings, if necessary, the corresponding views may be given other names, for example, “facade”. The names of types on the drawings should not be inscribed, except as provided in clause 2.2. In construction drawings it is allowed to inscribe the name of the type and assign it an alphabetic, numerical or other designation. 2.2. If the views from above, left, right, below, from behind are not in direct projection connection with the main image (the view or section shown on the frontal plane of projections), then the direction of projection should be indicated by an arrow next to the corresponding image. The same capital letter should be placed above the arrow and above the resulting image (view) (Fig. 8).

Drawings are designed in the same way if the listed views are separated from the main image by other images or are not located on the same sheet with it. When there is no image that can show the direction of view, the name of the species is inscribed. In construction drawings, it is allowed to indicate the direction of view with two arrows (similar to indicating the position of cutting planes in sections). In construction drawings, regardless of the relative position of the views, it is allowed to inscribe the name and designation of the view without indicating the direction of view with an arrow, if the direction of view is determined by the name or designation of the view. 2.3. If any part of an object cannot be shown in the views listed in paragraph 2.1 without distorting the shape and size, then additional views are used, obtained on planes not parallel to the main planes of projections (Fig. 9-11). 2.4. The additional view must be marked on the drawing with a capital letter (Fig. 9, 10), and the image of an object associated with the additional view must have an arrow indicating the direction of view, with the corresponding letter designation(arrow B, drawing 9, 10).

When an additional view is located in direct projection connection with the corresponding image, the arrow and view designation are not applied (Fig. 11).

2.2-2.4. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 2.5. Additional types are arranged as shown in Fig. 9- 11. Location of additional views along the lines. 9 and 11 are preferable. An additional view can be rotated, but, as a rule, the position adopted for of this subject on the main image, while the type designation must be supplemented with a conventional graphic designation. If necessary, indicate the angle of rotation (Fig. 12). Several identical additional types related to one subject are designated by one letter and one type is drawn. If, in this case, parts of the object associated with an additional type are located at different angles, then a conventional graphic designation is not added to the type designation. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 1, 2). 2.6. The image of a separate, limited area of ​​the surface of an object is called a local view (type D, figure 8; view E, figure 13). The local view may be limited to the cliff line, if possible in smallest size(type D, drawing 13), or not limited (type D, drawing 13). The local view should be marked on the drawing as additional view. 2.7. The ratio of the sizes of the arrows indicating the direction of view must correspond to those shown in Fig. 14. 2.6, 2.7. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2).

3. CUT

3.1. The sections are divided, depending on the position of the cutting plane relative to the horizontal plane of projections, into: horizontal - the cutting plane is parallel to the horizontal plane of projections (for example, section A-A, Fig. 13; section B-B, crap. 15). In construction drawings, horizontal sections may be given other names, such as "plan"; vertical - the cutting plane is perpendicular to the horizontal plane of projections (for example, a section at the site of the main view, Fig. 13; cuts A-A, V-V, G-G, damn. 15); inclined - the secant plane makes an angle with the horizontal projection plane that is different from a straight line (for example, section B-B, crap. 8). Depending on the number of cutting planes, the sections are divided into: simple - with one cutting plane (for example, Fig. 4, 5); complex - with several cutting planes (for example, section A-A, Fig. 8; section B-B, Fig. 15). 3.2. A vertical section is called frontal if the cutting plane is parallel to the frontal plane of projections (for example, section, Fig. 5; section A-A, Fig. 16), and profile if the cutting plane is parallel to the profile plane of projections (for example, section BB, Fig. 16 . 13).

3.3. Complex sections can be stepped if the cutting planes are parallel (for example, a stepped horizontal section B-B, Fig. 15; a stepped frontal section A-A, Fig. 16), and broken if the cutting planes intersect (for example, sections A-A, features 8 and 15). 3.4. The cuts are called longitudinal if the cutting planes are directed along the length or height of the object (Figure 17), and transverse if the cutting planes are directed perpendicular to the length or height of the object (for example, cuts A-A and B-B, Figure 18). 3.5. The position of the cutting plane is indicated in the drawing by a section line. An open line must be used for the section line. In case of a complex cut, strokes are also made at the intersection of the cutting planes. Arrows should be placed on the initial and final strokes indicating the direction of view (Fig. 8-10, 13, 15); arrows should be applied at a distance of 2-3 mm from the end of the stroke. The starting and ending strokes must not intersect the outline of the corresponding image. In cases like the one indicated in Fig. 18, arrows indicating the direction of view are drawn on the same line. 3.1-3.5. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 3.6. At the beginning and end of the section line, and, if necessary, at the intersection of the cutting planes, the same capital letter of the Russian alphabet is placed. The letters are placed near the arrows indicating the direction of view, and at the intersection points from the side external corner. The cut must be marked with an inscription like “A-A” (always two letters separated by a dash). In construction drawings, near the section line, it is allowed to use numbers instead of letters, as well as write the name of the section (plan) with an alphanumeric or other designation assigned to it. 3.7. When the secant plane coincides with the plane of symmetry of the object as a whole, and the corresponding images are located on the same sheet in direct projection connection and are not separated by any other images, for horizontal, frontal and profile sections the position of the secant plane is not marked, and the cut is inscribed are not accompanied (for example, a section at the site of the main species, Fig. 13). 3.8. Frontal and profile sections, as a rule, are given a position corresponding to that accepted for a given item in the main image of the drawing (Fig. 12). 3.9. Horizontal, frontal and profile sections can be located in place of the corresponding main views (Fig. 13). 3.10. A vertical section, when the cutting plane is not parallel to the frontal or profile planes of projections, as well as an inclined section must be constructed and located in accordance with the direction indicated by the arrows on the section line. It is allowed to place such sections anywhere in the drawing (section B-B, Fig. 8), as well as with rotation to a position corresponding to that accepted for this item in the main image. In the latter case, a conventional graphic designation should be added to the inscription (section Г-Г, drawing 15). 3.11. For broken cuts, the secant planes are conventionally rotated until they are aligned into one plane, and the direction of rotation may not coincide with the direction of view (Fig. 19). If the combined planes turn out to be parallel to one of the main projection planes, then a broken section can be placed in the place of the corresponding type (sections A-A, drawings 8, 15). When rotating the secant plane, the elements of the object located on it are drawn as they are projected onto the corresponding plane with which the alignment is made (Fig. 20).

Crap. 19 Damn. 20

3.12. An incision that serves to clarify the structure of an object only in a separate, limited place is called local. The local section is highlighted in the view by a solid wavy line (Figure 21) or a solid thin line with a break (Figure 22). These lines must not coincide with any other lines in the image.

3.13. Part of the view and part of the corresponding section can be connected by separating them with a solid wavy line or a solid thin line with a break (Fig. 23, 24, 25). If in this case half of the view and half of the section are connected, each of which is a symmetrical figure, then the dividing line is the axis of symmetry (Fig. 26). It is also possible to separate the section and view by a thin dash-dotted line (Fig. 27), coinciding with the trace of the plane of symmetry not of the entire object, but only of its part, if it represents a body of rotation.

3.10-3.13. (Changed edition, Rev. № 2). 3.14. It is allowed to combine a quarter of a view and quarters of three sections: a quarter of a view, a quarter of one section and half of another, etc., provided that each of these images is individually symmetrical.

4. SECTIONS

4.1. Sections that are not part of the section are divided into: external sections (Fig. 6, 28); superimposed (Fig. 29).

Extended sections are preferable and can be placed in a section between parts of the same type (Fig. 30).

(Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 4.2. The contour of the extended section, as well as the section included in the section, is depicted with solid main lines, and the contour of the superimposed section is depicted with solid thin lines, and the contour of the image at the location of the superimposed section is not interrupted (Fig. 13, 28, 29). 4.3. The axis of symmetry of the extended or superimposed section (Fig. 6, 29) is indicated by a thin dash-dotted line without letters and arrows, and the section line is not drawn. In cases like the one indicated in Fig. 30, with a symmetrical sectional figure, the section line is not drawn. In all other cases, an open line is used for the section line, indicating the direction of view with arrows and denoted by the same capital letters of the Russian alphabet (in construction drawings - uppercase or lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet or numbers). The section is accompanied by an inscription like “AA” (Fig. 28). In construction drawings it is allowed to inscribe the name of the section. For asymmetrical sections located in a gap (Fig. 31) or superimposed (Fig. 32), the section line is drawn with arrows, but not marked with letters.

Crap. 31 Damn. 32

In construction drawings, for symmetrical sections, an open line is used with its designation, but without arrows indicating the direction of view. 4.4. The section in construction and location must correspond to the direction indicated by the arrows (Fig. 28). It is allowed to place the section anywhere in the drawing field, as well as with a rotation with the addition of a conventional graphic designation 4.5. For several identical sections related to one object, the section line is designated by one letter and one section is drawn (Fig. 33, 34). If the cutting planes are directed at different angles (Fig. 35), then the conventional graphic designation is not applied. When the location of identical sections is precisely determined by the image or dimensions, it is allowed to draw one section line, and indicate the number of sections above the section image.

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4.6 Cutting planes are chosen so as to obtain normal cross sections (Fig. 36). 4.7. If the secant plane passes through the axis of the surface of rotation that bounds the hole or recess, then the contour of the hole or recess in the section is shown in full (Fig. 37). 4.8. If the section turns out to consist of separate independent parts, then cuts should be used (Fig. 38).

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4.4-4.8. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2).

5. REMOTE ELEMENTS

5.1. A detachable element is an additional separate image (usually enlarged) of any part of an object that requires graphic and other explanations regarding shape, size and other data. The detail element may contain details not indicated on the corresponding image, and may differ from it in content (for example, the image may be a view, and the detail element may be a section). 5.2. When using a callout element, the corresponding place is marked on the view, section or section with a closed solid thin line - a circle, an oval, etc. with the designation of the callout element in a capital letter or a combination of a capital letter and an Arabic numeral on the shelf of the leader line. Above the image of the extension element, indicate the designation and scale in which it is made (Fig. 39).

In construction drawings, the extension element in the image can also be marked with a curly or square bracket or not marked graphically. The image from which the element is being taken out, and the extension element, may also have the alphabetic or numerical (Arabic numerals) designation and name assigned to the extension element. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 5.3. The remote element is placed as close as possible to the corresponding place in the image of the object.

6. CONVENTIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS

6.1. If the view, section or section represents a symmetrical figure, it is allowed to draw half of the image (View B, Drawing 13) or slightly more than half of the image, drawing a break line in the latter case (Drawing 25). 6.2. If an object has several identical, evenly spaced elements, then the image of this object shows one or two such elements in full (for example, one or two holes, Fig. 15), and the remaining elements are shown in a simplified or conditional manner (Fig. 40). It is allowed to depict a part of an object (Fig. 41, 42) with appropriate instructions on the number of elements, their location, etc.

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6.3. In views and sections, it is allowed to depict in a simplified manner the projections of the lines of intersection of surfaces, if their precise construction is not required. For example, instead of pattern curves, circular arcs and straight lines are drawn (Fig. 43, 44).

6.4. A smooth transition from one surface to another is shown conditionally (Fig. 45-47) or not shown at all (Fig. 48-50).

Simplifications similar to those indicated in Fig. 51, 52.

6.5. Parts such as screws, rivets, keys, non-hollow shafts and spindles, connecting rods, handles, etc. are shown uncut in a longitudinal section. The balls are always shown uncut. As a rule, nuts and washers are shown uncut on assembly drawings. Elements such as spokes of flywheels, pulleys, gears, thin walls such as stiffeners, etc. are shown unshaded if the cutting plane is directed along the axis or long side of such an element. If in such elements of a part there is a local drilling, recess, etc., then a local cut is made, as shown in Fig. 21, 22, 53. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2).

Crap. 53 Damn. 54 Damn. 55

6.6. Plates, as well as elements of parts (holes, chamfers, grooves, recesses, etc.) with a size (or difference in size) in the drawing of 2 mm or less are depicted with a deviation from the scale adopted for the entire image, in the direction of enlargement. 6.7. It is permissible to depict a slight taper or slope with magnification. In those images in which the slope or taper is not clearly visible, for example, the main view of the devil. 54a or top view of the devil. 54b, draw only one line corresponding to the smaller size of the element with a slope or the smaller base of the cone. 6.8. If it is necessary to highlight the flat surfaces of an object in the drawing, diagonals are drawn on them with solid thin lines (Drawing 55). 6.9. Objects or elements that have a constant or naturally changing cross-section (shafts, chains, rods, shaped steel, connecting rods, etc.) may be depicted with breaks. Partial images and images with gaps are limited to one of following methods: a) a continuous thin line with a break, which can extend beyond the contour of the image by a length of 2 to 4 mm. This line may be inclined relative to the contour line (Fig. 56a);

B) a solid wavy line connecting the corresponding contour lines (Fig. 56b);

C) hatching lines (Fig. 5bv).

(Changed edition, Rev. № 2). 6.10. In drawings of objects with a continuous mesh, braiding, ornament, relief, knurling, etc., it is allowed to depict these elements partially, with possible simplification (Drawing 57).

6.11. To simplify drawings or reduce the number of images, it is allowed: a) the part of the object located between the observer and the cutting plane is depicted with a dash-dot thick line directly on the section (superimposed projection, Fig. 58); b) use complex cuts (Fig. 59);

C) to show holes in the hubs of gear wheels, pulleys, etc., as well as for keyways, instead of a full image of the part, give only the outline of the hole (Fig. 60) or groove (Fig. 52); d) depict in section the holes located on the round flange when they do not fall into the secant plane (Fig. 15). 6.12. If a top view is not necessary and the drawing is compiled from images on the frontal and profile planes of projections, then with a stepped section, the section line and inscriptions related to the section are applied as shown in the drawing. 61.

6.11, 6.12. (Changed edition, Amendment No. 2). 6.13. Conventions and simplifications allowed in permanent connections, in drawings of electrical and radio engineering devices, gears, etc., are established by the relevant standards. 6.14. The conventional graphic designation “rotated” must correspond to the line. 62 and “expanded” - damn. 63.

(Introduced additionally, Amendment No. 2). APPENDIX according to GOST 2.317-69.

INFORMATION DATA

1. DEVELOPED AND INTRODUCED by the Committee of Standards, Measures and Measuring Instruments under the Council of Ministers of the USSR DEVELOPERS V.R. Verchenko, Yu.I. Stepanov, Ya.G. Old-timer, B.Ya. Kabakov, V.K. Anopova 2. APPROVED AND ENTERED INTO EFFECT by the Resolution of the Committee of Standards, Measures and measuring instruments at the Council of Ministers of the USSR in December 1967 3. The standard fully complies with ST SEV 363-88 4. INSTEAD GOST 3453-59 in terms of section. I - V, VII and appendices 5. EDITION (April 2000) with Amendments No. 1, 2, approved in September 1987, August 1989 (IUS 12-87, 12-89)

1. Basic provisions and definitions. 1 2. Types.. 3 3. Sections.. 6 4. Sections. 9 5. Detailed elements.. 11 6. Conventions and simplifications. 12

13.1. A method for constructing images based on analysis of the shape of an object. As you already know, most objects can be represented as a combination of geometric bodies. Investigator, to read and execute drawings you need to know. how these geometric bodies are depicted.

Now that you know how such geometric bodies are depicted in a drawing, and have learned how vertices, edges and faces are projected, it will be easier for you to read drawings of objects.

Figure 100 shows a part of the machine - the counterweight. Let's analyze its shape. What geometric bodies do you know that it can be divided into? To answer this question, remember characteristic features, inherent in the images of these geometric bodies.

Rice. 100. Part projections

In Figure 101, a. one of them is highlighted in blue. What geometric body has such projections?

Projections in the form of rectangles are characteristic of a parallelepiped. Three projections and a visual image of the parallelepiped, highlighted in Figure 101, a in blue, are given in Figure 101, b.

In Figure 101, in gray another geometric body is conditionally selected. What geometric body has such projections?

Rice. 101. Part shape analysis

You encountered such projections when considering images of a triangular prism. Three projections and a visual image of the prism, highlighted in gray in Figure 101, c, are given in Figure 101, d. Thus, the counterweight consists of rectangular parallelepiped and a triangular prism.

But a part has been removed from the parallelepiped, the surface of which is conventionally highlighted in blue in Figure 101, d. What geometric body has such projections?

You encountered projections in the form of a circle and two rectangles when considering images of a cylinder. Consequently, the counterweight contains a hole in the shape of a cylinder, three projections and a visual image of which are given in Figure 101. f.

Analysis of the shape of an object is necessary not only when reading, but also when making drawings. Thus, having determined the shape of which geometric bodies the parts of the counterweight shown in Figure 100 have, it is possible to establish an appropriate sequence for constructing its drawing.

For example, a drawing of a counterweight is built like this:

1. on all views, a parallelepiped is drawn, which is the basis of the counterweight;
2. a triangular prism is added to the parallelepiped;
3. draw an element in the form of a cylinder. In the top and left views it is shown with dashed lines, since the hole is invisible.

Draw the description of a part called a bushing. It consists of a truncated cone and a regular quadrangular prism. total length parts 60 mm. The diameter of one base of the cone is 30 mm, the other is 50 mm. The prism is attached to a larger cone base, which is located in the middle of its base measuring 50X50 mm. The height of the prism is 10 mm. A through cylindrical hole with a diameter of 20 mm is drilled along the axis of the bushing.

13.2. The sequence of constructing views in a detail drawing. Let's consider an example of constructing views of a part - support (Fig. 102).

Rice. 102. Visual representation of the support

Before you start constructing images, you need to clearly imagine the general initial geometric shape of the part (whether it will be a cube, cylinder, parallelepiped, etc.). This form must be kept in mind when constructing views.

The general shape of the object shown in Figure 102 is a rectangular parallelepiped. It has rectangular cutouts and a triangular prism cutout. Let's start depicting the detail with it general form- parallelepiped (Fig. 103, a).

Rice. 103. Sequence of constructing part views

By projecting the parallelepiped onto the planes V, H, W, we obtain rectangles on all three projection planes. On the frontal plane of projections the height and length of the part will be reflected, i.e. dimensions 30 and 34. On the horizontal plane of projections - the width and length of the part, i.e. dimensions 26 and 34. On the profile plane - width and height, i.e. dimensions 26 and 30.

Each dimension of the part is shown without distortion twice: height - on the frontal and profile planes, length - on the frontal and horizontal planes, width - on the horizontal and profile planes of projections. However, you cannot apply the same dimension twice in a drawing.

All constructions will be done first with thin lines. Since the main view and the top view are symmetrical, axes of symmetry are marked on them.

Now we will show the cutouts on the projections of the parallelepiped (Fig. 103, b). It makes more sense to show them first in the main view. To do this, you need to set aside 12 mm to the left and to the right from the axis of symmetry and draw vertical lines through the resulting points. Then, at a distance of 14 mm from the top edge of the part, draw horizontal straight segments.

Let's construct projections of these cutouts on other views. This can be done using communication lines. After this, in the top and left views you need to show the segments that limit the projections of the cutouts.

In conclusion, the images are outlined with the lines established by the standard and the dimensions are applied (Fig. 103, c).

1. Name the sequence of actions that make up the process of constructing types of an object.
2. What purpose are projection lines used for?

13.3. Constructing cuts on geometric bodies. Figure 104 shows images of geometric bodies, the shape of which is complicated by various kinds of cutouts.

Rice. 104. Geometric bodies containing cutouts

Parts of this shape are widely used in technology. To draw or read their drawing, you need to imagine the shape of the workpiece from which the part is made, and the shape of the cutout. Let's look at examples.

Example 1. Figure 105 shows a drawing of the gasket. What shape does the removed part have? What was the shape of the workpiece?

Rice. 105. Gasket shape analysis

Having analyzed the drawing of the gasket, we can come to the conclusion that it was obtained as a result of removing the fourth part of the cylinder from a rectangular parallelepiped (blank).

Example 2. Figure 106a shows a drawing of a plug. What is the shape of its blank? What resulted in the shape of the part?

Rice. 106. Constructing projections of a part with a cutout

After analyzing the drawing, we can come to the conclusion that the part is made from a cylindrical blank. There is a cutout in it, the shape of which is clear from Figure 106, b.

How to construct a projection of the cutout in the view on the left?

First, a rectangle is drawn - a view of the cylinder on the left, which is the original shape of the part. Then a projection of the cutout is constructed. Its dimensions are known, therefore, points a", b" and a, b, defining the projections of the cutout, can be considered as given.

The construction of profile projections a, b" of these points is shown by connection lines with arrows (Fig. 106, c).

Having established the shape of the cutout, it is easy to decide which lines in the left view should be outlined with solid thick main lines, which with dashed lines, and which to delete altogether.

13.4. Construction of the third type. Sometimes you will have to complete tasks in which you need to build a third using two existing types.

In Figure 108 you see an image of a block with a cutout. There are two views: front and top. You need to build a view on the left. To do this, you must first imagine the shape of the depicted part.

Rice. 108. Drawing of a block with a cutout

Having compared the views in the drawing, we conclude that the block has the shape of a parallelepiped measuring 10x35x20 mm. A rectangular cutout is made in the parallelepiped, its size is 12x12x10 mm.

The view on the left, as we know, is placed at the same height as the main view to the right of it. We draw one horizontal line at the level of the lower base of the parallelepiped, and the other at the level of the upper base (Fig. 109, a). These lines limit the height of the view on the left. Draw a vertical line anywhere between them. It will be the projection of the back face of the block onto the profile projection plane. From it to the right we will set aside a segment equal to 20 mm, i.e. we will limit the width of the bar, and we will draw another vertical line - the projection of the front face (Fig. 109, b).

Rice. 109. Construction of the third projection

Let us now show in the view on the left the cutout in the part. To do this, put a 12 mm segment to the left of the right vertical line, which is the projection of the front edge of the block, and draw another vertical line (Fig. 109, c). After this, we delete all auxiliary construction lines and outline the drawing (Fig. 109, d).

The third projection can be constructed based on an analysis of the geometric shape of the object. Let's look at how this is done. Figure 110a shows two projections of the part. We need to build a third one.

Rice. 110. Construction of the third projection from two data

Judging by these projections, the part is composed of a hexagonal prism, a parallelepiped and a cylinder. Mentally combining them into a single whole, let’s imagine the shape of the part (Fig. 110, c).

We draw an auxiliary straight line in the drawing at an angle of 45° and proceed to construct the third projection. You know what the third projections of a hexagonal prism, parallelepiped and cylinder look like. We draw sequentially the third projection of each of these bodies, using connection lines and axes of symmetry (Fig. 110, b).

Please note that in many cases there is no need to construct a third projection in the drawing, since rational execution of images involves constructing only the necessary (minimum) number of views sufficient to identify the shape of the object. IN in this case constructing a third projection of an object is only an educational task.

1. Have you read the different ways constructing a third projection of the object. How are they different from each other?
2. What is the purpose of using a constant line? How is it carried out?

Rice. 113. Exercise tasks

Rice. 114. Exercise tasks

Graphic work No. 5. Construction of the third type based on two data

Construct a third view based on two data (Fig. 115).

Rice. 115. Assignments for graphic work No. 5

Drawing a side view of an object seems the simplest and most intuitive - without “perspective” it’s easy and fun to draw. However, due to their simplicity, side view drawings are also quite boring, and they are very problematic in conveying the character and qualities of the subject. In this short tutorial, I'll show you how to turn them into an interesting, 3D drawing using a simple Photoshop trick.

1. Prepare a side view drawing

Step 1

Open Adobe Photoshop. Create new document(Ctrl/Cmd-N) and draw a side view of your character on a new layer (Ctrl/Cmd-Shift-Alt-N).

Step 2

Install Opacity(Opacity) of the layer by 20%. Then create a new layer.

Step 3

On this new layer, draw a simplified version of the character. Keep the shapes as simple as possible, forget about the details for a second.

2. Build a binding box

Step 1

Every three-dimensional object, regardless of the level of detail, can be enclosed in a so-called box. Likewise, the side view (2D) can be enclosed within one side of this box - a rectangle. Let's build it!

Select Rectangle Tool(Rectangle Tool (U)) and change its settings as shown below.

Step 2

Draw any rectangle. Don't bother creating a new layer - for shapes they are created automatically.

Step 3

Use the tool Free Transform Tool(Free Transform (Ctrl/Cmd-T)) to resize the rectangle and fit the character tightly inside. Hide the character (click on the "eye" icon next to the corresponding layer in the layers panel).

Step 4

Duplicate ( Ctrl/ cmd- J) rectangle and hide the original.

Now we need some rules of perspective. You can find them in my other lessons on perspective - they are not as difficult as you might think. Here's an example!

• If you want to see the front of the character, make the rectangle narrower to the left.
• If you want to see the back of the character, make the rectangle narrower to the right.

• If you want to see the top of the character, make the rectangle shorter at the top.
• If you want to see the bottom of the character, make the rectangle shorter at the bottom.

Step 5

The side view must be distorted to transform into a 3D view. Restore the visibility of the layer with the original rectangle and lower it Opacity(Opacity). Use Direct Selection Tool(Node Selection Tool (A)), hold Shift and click on the dots on the side near the “space”.

When both points are selected, click the down arrow to move them down. We now have one side of the binding box!

Step 6

The side view contains information about the height and length of the character, but 3D is three measurements.

Create a new layer. Remove the visibility of the rectangle, but return the visibility of the character layer. Turn on the rulers (Ctrl/Cmd-R) and drag them horizontally towards the picture to measure out the most important parts of the character. Use these lines to draw a simple top view.

Hint: you can draw only half of the top view and then duplicate it (Ctrl/Cmd-J) and Edit > Transform > Flip Vertical(Edit > Transform > Flip Vertical).

Step 7

Create a connecting rectangle for the top view as before.

Step 8

Return to the distorted rectangle. We can create the second part of our “box” from it. Drag it while holding Alt to duplicate it. Move it according to the rules of perspective:

If you want to see the front, move to the right.

If you want to see the back, move to the left.

If you want to see the top, move down.

If you want to see the bottom, move it to the top.

Regarding distance:

The narrower the length, the greater the horizontal distance.

The lower the height, the greater the vertical distance.

The distance cannot be greater than the width in the top view.

Step 9

Connect the sides using Pen Tool(Pen (P)) (using the same settings as the rectangle). Our box is ready!

3.Adjust side view for 3D link box

Step 1

Now we need to fit the character inside the box. First, use Free Transform Tool(Free Transform (Ctrl/Cmd-T)) while holding down the Shift key to adjust the height of the character to the height of the box.

Step 2

Hold Ctrl/Cmd and drag the bottom point to bottom corner far side. Do the same with the top point. Our goal is to "attach" the character to the distorted side.

Step 3

Hold Alt and drag the character to place a copy on the other side.

Step 4

The problem is that not every body element is the same width. Let's look at the example of a muzzle. Create a new layer to draw a line between the bases of the face on both sides.

Now draw the same line between both sides in the top view.

Step 5

As you can see, the muzzle starts a little deeper rather than right near the sides.

Try to imitate similar proportions on this line:

Step 6

Select a face on one side using Lasso Tool(Lasso (L)). Cut and paste it into place on a new layer.

5.1. View placement rules. To fully identify the shape of objects in drawing, various images are used: views, sections, sections. First you will study the species.

View- This is an image of the visible part of the surface of an object facing the observer. To reduce the number of images, it is allowed to show the necessary invisible parts of the surface of an object in views using dashed lines. And Difference from projections in views, some conventions and simplifications are used. You will study them later.

The image obtained on the frontal plane of projections is called front view. This image is taken in the drawing as The main thing. Therefore, this type is also called the main one. When making a drawing, the object must be positioned in such a way relative to the frontal plane of projections that the main view gives the most complete idea of ​​the shape and size of the object.

The image on the horizontal projection plane is called top view.

The image on the profile plane of projections is called left view.

Along with front, top and left views, right, bottom, and rear views can be used to depict an object (all of them are called main). However, the number of views in the drawing should be the smallest, but sufficient to fully identify the shape and size of the object. To reduce the number of views on them, it is allowed to show, if necessary, invisible parts of the surface of the object with dashed lines. For the same purpose, various symbols, signs and inscriptions established by the standard.

Rice. 52. Three types of parts

Figure 52 shows three views of the part, a visual representation of which is shown in Figure 53. The main view is the front view. Below it is a top view, to the right of the main view and at the same height - a view to the left. The cutout in the rectangular part was invisible in the top view, so it is shown with a dashed line.

Rice. 53. Visual representation of the part

5.2. Local species. In some cases, instead of the full view, you can use part of it in the drawing. This simplifies the construction of an image of an object.

The image of a separate, limited place on the surface of an object is called local species. It is used in that case. when you need to show the shape and dimensions of individual elements of a part (flange, keyway, etc.).

The local view can be limited by a cliff line, an axis of symmetry, etc. It can be marked on the drawing and with an inscription. The local view is placed on a free field of the drawing or in projection connection with other images. At school you will consider local species located only in projection connection (Fig. 54).

Rice. 54. Local views located in projection connection

Using a local view allows you to reduce the amount of graphic work and save space on the drawing field.

1. Define the species.
2. How are the views arranged in the drawing?
3. Which species is called the main one and why?
4. Which species is called local? For what purpose is it used? What are the benefits of using a local species?

Rice. 56. Exercise task

Copy the data in Figure 56 and the drawings into your workbook and supplement them with an image of the second box.

Directions for use. If you find it difficult to solve the problem, make models from boxes, as shown in Figure 56, and compare the drawings of the models you made with their visual images. Make your own one or two more models out of two or three matchboxes and complete their drawings.

Practical work No. 3
Modeling according to drawing

Rice. 58. Tasks for practical work № 3

Directions for use. Modeling is the process of making a model of an object according to a drawing. You have already done this in labor lessons. Before you start modeling, you need to prepare required material: cardboard, wire.

To make a cardboard model, first cut out its blank. Determine the dimensions of the workpiece from the image of the part (see Fig. 58). Mark (outline) the cutouts. Cut them along the outlined contour. Remove the cut out parts and bend the model according to the drawing. To prevent the cardboard from straightening after bending, draw a line at the bending point. outside lines with some sharp object.

The wire for modeling must be soft and of arbitrary length.

Full technical drawing contains at least three projections. However, the knowledge to imagine an object from two projections is required from both the technologist and the skilled worker. It is precisely because of this that exam papers in technical universities and colleges, there are continuously encountered problems of constructing the third type based on two given ones. In order to successfully complete a similar task, you need to know the conventions adopted in technical drawing.

You will need

• - paper;
• – 2 projections of the part;
• – drawing tools.

Instructions

1. The principles for constructing the third type are identical for classical drawing, drawing up a sketch and constructing a drawing in one of the pre-prepared computer programs. Analyze the given projections before everyone else. Look at exactly what types you are given. When we're talking about about 3 views, then this is the general projection, the top view and the left view. Determine what exactly is given to you. This can be done according to the location of the drawings. The left view is located with right side from the general, and the view from above is below it.

2. Establish a projection link with one of the specified views. This can be done by extending the horizontal lines that limit the silhouette of the object to the right when it is necessary to construct a view from the left. If we are talking about a top view, continue the vertical lines down. In any case, one of the part parameters will appear mechanically in your drawing.

3. Find the 2nd parameter on existing projections that limits the silhouettes of the part. When constructing a view on the left, you will find this size in the top view. When establishing a projection connection with the main view, the height of the part appeared in your drawing. This means that you need to take the width from the top view. When constructing a top view, the 2nd dimension is taken from the lateral projection. Mark the silhouettes of your subject in the third projection.

4. See if the part has protrusions, voids, or holes. This is all noted on the general projection, which, by definition, should give the most accurate idea of ​​the subject. It is true that in the same way as when determining the overall silhouette of a part in the third projection, establish a projection relationship between different elements. The remaining parameters (say, the distance from the center of the hole to the edge of the part, the depth of the protrusion, etc.) can be found in the side or top view. Construct the necessary elements by considering the measurements you have discovered.

5. To check how well you have completed the task, try drawing a part in one of the axonometric projections. See how intelligently the elements of the third type you have drawn are located on the volumetric projection. It may be that some adjustments will have to be made to the drawing. A drawing taking into account perspective can also help you check your construction.

One of the most interesting problems in descriptive geometry is the construction of the third kind for given 2. It requires a thoughtful approach and meticulous measurement of distances, and therefore is not always given the first time. However, if you scrupulously follow the recommended sequence of actions, it is absolutely possible to build the 3rd type, even without spatial imagination.

You will need

• - paper;
• - pencil;
• - ruler or compass.

Instructions

1. First of all, try the two available kind m determine the shape individual parts of the depicted object. If the top view shows a triangle, then it can be a triangular prism, a cone of rotation, a triangular or quadrangular pyramid. The shape of a quadrangle can be taken by a cylinder, a quadrangular or triangular prism, or other objects. An image in the shape of a circle can represent a ball, cone, cylinder, or other surface of rotation. One way or the other, try to imagine the overall shape of the object in its entirety.

2. Draw the boundaries of the planes for the comfort of transferring lines. Start transferring with the most comfortable and intelligible element. Take any point that you correctly “see” on both kind x and move it to the 3rd view. To do this, lower the perpendicular to the boundaries of the planes and continue it on the next plane. Please note that when switching from kind on the left in the top view (or opposite), you need to use a compass or measure the distance using a ruler. So in place of your third kind two lines intersect. This will be the projection of the selected point onto the 3rd view. In the same way, you can transfer as many points as desired until you understand the overall appearance of the part.

3. Check the correctness of the construction. To do this, measure the dimensions of those parts of the part that are completely reflected (say, a standing cylinder will be the same “height” in the left view and the front view). In order to realize whether you have forgotten anything, try to look at the front view from the position of an observer from above and count (albeit approximately) how many boundaries of holes and surfaces should be visible. Every straight line, every point must have a reflection on everyone kind X. If the part is symmetrical, do not forget to mark the axis of symmetry and check the equality of both parts.

4. Remove all auxiliary lines, check that all noticeable lines are marked with a dotted line.

In order to depict this or that object, first its individual elements are depicted in the form of simple figures, and then their projection is performed. The construction of a projection is quite often used in descriptive geometry.

You will need

• - pencil;
• – compass;
• - ruler;
• – reference book “Descriptive Geometry”;
• - rubber.

Instructions

1. Carefully read the data of the task: for example, the general projection F2 is given. The point F belonging to it is located on the side surface of the rotation cylinder. It requires the construction of 3 projections of point F. Mentally imagine how all this should look, then proceed to construct the image on paper.

2. A cylinder of rotation can be represented as a rotating rectangle, one of the sides of which is taken as the axis of rotation. The second side of the rectangle - opposite to the axis of rotation - forms the side surface of the cylinder. The remaining two sides represent the bottom and top base of the cylinder.

3. Due to the fact that the surface of the cylinder of rotation when constructing given projections is made in the form of a horizontally projecting surface, the projection of point F1 must necessarily coincide with point P.

4. Draw the projection of point F2: since F is on the common surface of the cylinder of rotation, point F2 will be point F1 projected onto the lower base.

5. Construct the third projection of point F using the ordinate axis: place F3 on it (this projection point will be located to the right of the z3 axis).

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Note!
When constructing image projections, follow the basic rules used in descriptive geometry. Otherwise, it will not be possible to execute the projections.

Helpful advice
To construct an isometric image, use the upper base of the rotation cylinder. To do this, first construct an ellipse (it will be placed in the x’O’y’ plane). Later, draw tangent lines and a lower half-ellipse. After this, draw a coordinate polyline and, with its support, construct a projection of point F, that is, point F’.

There are not many people these days who have never in their lives had the opportunity to draw or draw something on paper. The knowledge to execute a primitive drawing of some design is sometimes very useful. You can spend a lot of time explaining “on your fingers” how this or that thing is made, while it is enough to just look at its drawing in order to realize it without any words.

You will need

• – sheet of whatman paper;
• – drawing accessories;
• - drawing board.

Instructions

1. Select the sheet format on which the drawing will be drawn - in accordance with GOST 9327-60. The format should be such that it is possible to place the main kinds details in the appropriate scale, as well as all the necessary cuts and sections. For simple parts, choose A4 (210x297 mm) or A3 (297x420 mm) format. The 1st can be positioned with its long side only vertically, the 2nd - vertically and horizontally.

2. Draw a frame for the drawing, departing from the left edge of the sheet 20 mm, from the rest 3 - 5 mm. Draw the main inscription - a table in which all data about details and drawing. Its dimensions are determined by GOST 2.108-68. The width of the core inscription is constant - 185 mm, the height varies from 15 to 55 mm depending on the purpose of the drawing and the type of institution for which it is being made.

3. Select the scale of the main image. Acceptable scales are determined by GOST 2.302-68. They should be preferred so that all the main elements are clearly visible in the drawing details. If some places are not clearly visible, they can be moved a separate species, shown at the required magnification.

4. Select main image details. It should represent the direction of view of the part (projection direction), from which its design is revealed especially fully. In most cases, the main image is the location in which the part is on the machine during the core operation. Parts that have an axis of rotation are located on the main image, as usual, so that the axis is horizontal. The main image is located at the top of the drawing on the left (if there are three projections) or close to the center (if there is no side projection).

5. Determine the location of the remaining images (side view, top view, sections, sections). Kinds details are formed by its projection onto three or two mutually perpendicular planes(Monge method). In this case, the part must be positioned in such a way that many or all of its elements are projected without distortion. If any of these types is informationally redundant, do not perform it. The drawing should have only those images that are needed.

6. Select the cuts and sections to be made. Their difference from each other is that the section also shows what is located behind the cutting plane, while the section displays only what is located in the plane itself. The cutting plane can be stepped or broken.

7. Feel free to start drawing. When drawing lines, follow GOST 2.303-68, which defines kinds lines and their parameters. Place the images at such a distance from each other that there is enough space for setting dimensions. If the cutting planes pass along the monolith details, hatch the sections with lines running at an angle of 45°. If the hatch lines coincide with the main lines of the image, you can draw them at an angle of 30° or 60°.

8. Draw dimension lines and mark down the dimensions. In doing so, be guided the following rules. The distance from the first dimension line to the silhouette of the image must be at least 10 mm, the distance between adjacent dimension lines must be at least 7 mm. The arrows must be about 5 mm long. Write numbers in accordance with GOST 2.304-68, take their height to be 3.5-5 mm. Place the numbers closer to the middle of the dimension line (but not on the image axis) with some offset relative to the numbers placed on adjacent dimension lines.

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Carrying out an accurate drawing repeatedly requires a large investment of time. Consequently, in case of an urgent need to manufacture some part, it is often not a drawing that is made, but a sketch. It is performed quite quickly and without the use of drawing tools. At the same time, there are a number of requirements that the sketch must meet.

You will need

• – detail;
• - paper;
• - pencil;
• – measuring instruments.

Instructions

1. The sketch must be accurate. According to it, the person who will make a copy of the part must get an idea of ​​how appearance products, and about it design features. Therefore, first of all, carefully examine the object. Determine the relationship between various parameters. See if there are holes, where they are located, their size and the ratio of the diameter to the overall size of the product.

2. Determine which view will be the main one and how accurate an idea it gives of the part. The number of projections depends on this. There may be 2, 3 or more. Their location on the sheet depends on how many projections you need. You need to proceed from how difficult the product will be.

3. Select a scale. It should be such that the master can easily make out even the smallest details.

4. Start sketching with center and axial lines. In drawings they are usually indicated by a dotted line with dots between the strokes. These lines indicate the middle of the part, the center of the hole, etc. They remain on the working drawings.

5. Draw the external silhouettes of the part. They are indicated by a thick, constant line. Try to convey the size ratio correctly. Draw internal (visible) outlines.

6. Make the cuts. This is done correctly in the same way as in any other drawing. The solid surface is shaded with oblique lines, the voids remain unfilled.

7. Draw dimension lines. Parallel vertical or horizontal strokes extend from the points the distance between which you want to indicate. Draw a straight line between them with arrows at the ends.

8. Measure the part. Specify the length, width, hole diameters and other dimensions needed to perform the job accurately. Write the dimensions on the sketch. If necessary, apply signs indicating processing methods and qualifications different surfaces products.

9. The final stage of work is filling out the stamp. Enter product information into it. Technical universities and design organizations have standards for filling out stamps. If you are making a sketch for yourself, then you can simply indicate what kind of part it is, the material from which it is made. The person who will make the part should see all other data in your sketch.

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The drawing serves so that those who will grind a part or build a house can get the most accurate idea of ​​the appearance of the object, its structure, the relationship of parts, and methods of surface treatment. One projection for this, as usual, is unsatisfactory. In training drawings there are usually three views - main, left and top. For objects of difficult shape, views from the right and from behind are also used.

You will need

• – detail;
• – measuring instruments;
• – drawing tools;
• – computer with AutoCAD.

Instructions

1. The sequence of drawing on a sheet of Whatman paper and in the AutoCAD program is approximately identical. First of all, look at the detail. Determine which angle will give the most accurate idea of ​​the shape and functional features. This projection will become its main view.

2. See if your piece looks identical when viewed from the right and left. Not only the number of projections, but also their location on the sheet depends on this. The view on the left is located to the right of the main one, and the view on the right is, accordingly, to the left. At the same time, in a flat projection they will look as if they are at ease in front of the observer’s eyes, that is, without control of perspective.

3. The methods for constructing a drawing are identical for all projections. Mentally position the object in the system of planes on which you will project it. Analyze the shape of the object. See if it can be divided into more primitive parts. Answer the question into the shape of which body your entire object or any fragment of it can be completely inscribed. Imagine what the individual parts look like in orthogonal projection. The plane on which the object is projected when constructing a left view is located on the right side of the object itself.

4. Measure the part. Remove the basic parameters, establish the relationship between the whole object and its individual parts. Select a scale and draw the main view.

5. Select a construction method. There are two of them. To complete the drawing using the removal technique, first apply the general silhouettes of the object on the one that you are looking at from the left or right. After this, gradually begin to remove volumes, drawing recesses, silhouettes of holes, etc. When taking increments, one element is first drawn, and then the rest are slowly added to it. The choice of method depends primarily on the difficulty of the projection. If a part, when viewed from the left or right, appears as a clearly defined geometric figure with a small number of deviations from the strict form, it is more convenient to use the removal technique. If there are a lot of fragments, but the part itself cannot fit into any shape, it is better to attach the elements to each other step by step. The difficulty of projections of the same part can be different, and therefore the methods can be changed.

6. In any case, start constructing the side view with the bottom and top lines. They must be on the same tier as the corresponding lines of the main view. This will provide projection communication. After this, apply the general silhouettes of the part or its first fragment. Maintain size ratio.

7. Having drawn the general silhouettes of the side view, apply axial lines, shading, etc. on it. Add dimensions. Signing a projection is not always required. If all views of a part are located on one sheet, then only the rear view is signed. The location of the remaining projections is determined by the standards. If the drawing is made on several sheets and one or both side views are not on the same sheet as the main one, they need to be signed.

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Helpful advice
When constructing a side view in AutoCAD or another drawing program, it is not strictly necessary to combine the top and bottom lines of the main and side views at the first stage. You can execute the drawing in fragments, and combine the tiers when you start preparing it for printing.