What does the noble code of honor teach? Noble education in Russia

HONOR AND DISHONOR

TOPICS...1. It is easy to be called a man, but it is more difficult to be a man. 2. How are the words “honor”, ​​“honesty”, “purity” similar? 3. Why has honor been valued at all times? 3. Is it appropriate to talk about honor and conscience in our time? 4. How do you understand what “honor” and “dishonor” are?

APHORISMS

People want wealth and fame for themselves; if both cannot be obtained honestly, they should be avoided. (Confucius) When a guilty person admits his guilt, he saves the only thing worth saving - his honor. (Victor Hugo) Whoever loses honor cannot lose anything beyond that. (Publius Syrus) Honor is like gem: the slightest spot takes away its shine and takes away its entire value. ( Pierre Beauchaine) You won't get rich by trading your honor. (F.M. Dostoevsky) An honest man can be persecuted, but not dishonored. ( F. Voltaire) Honor can only be lost once. (Eh M.Kapiev).P.Chekhov)

Code of Noble Honor on the pages of literary works

The willingness to pay with one's life for the inviolability of one's personal dignity presupposed an acute awareness of this dignity. A.S. Pushkin, the “slave of honor,” defending the honor of his wife and his own, challenged Dantes to a duel, who with dubious behavior could discredit the name of the Pushkin couple. The poet could not live “slandered by rumor” and put an end to dishonor at the cost own life. M.Yu. Lermontov also fell victim to dishonest and evil envious people.

Hero of the story A.S. Pushkin "Shot" Silvio, “the first brawler in the army,” is looking for an excuse for a fight in order to assert his primacy in the hussar regiment. His goal is not to kill, but to prove that he is strong and can dominate people. He is sick with narcissism and selfishness. Leaving the shot behind him, the hero did not kill the count, but was content with making him tremble. The question of honor, as the reader understands, is not even worthwhile - the hero’s courage is also in doubt.

Often duels broke out at the slightest provocation. Due to unreasonable jealousy Lensky challenges his friend to a duel Onegin .

In the novel M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time" Pechorin kills Grushnitsky in a duel, standing up for the honor of the slandered lady. Grushnitsky's cowardice and cowardice found expression in his dishonest behavior towards Princess Mary and his comrade, whom he envied.

The duel between Pierre Bezukhov and Dolokhov in the epic novel also deserves attention. L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace" . Pierre sincerely trusted his old friend, brought him into his house, helped with money, and Dolokhov disgraced his name. The hero stood up for his honor. But, realizing that stupid, “fake” Helen does not deserve to have a murder happen because of her, he is ready to repent not out of fear, but because he is sure of his wife’s guilt.

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In the 19th century in Russia there were people who amaze us today with their almost incredible honesty, nobility and subtlety of feelings. They grew up this way not only thanks to their extraordinary personal qualities, but also thanks to their special upbringing.

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The nobility stood out among other classes of Russian society for its clear orientation towards a certain ideal. The so-called “normative education” was applied to noble children, i.e. they were brought up in accordance with the then existing standards of decency, polishing their personality according to the desired model. Nurturing individuality was not encouraged back then.

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“Noble education” is not a pedagogical system, not a special methodology, not even a set of rules. This is, first of all, a way of life, a style of behavior, acquired partly consciously, partly unconsciously, through habit and imitation: it is a tradition that is not discussed, but observed.

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The young nobleman was obliged: To be honest, not to lie, not to steal; Be brave, courageous, determined and resilient; Be able to endure pain, fight fear and withstand any test; The ability to hide minor annoyances and disappointments from prying eyes; Be educated: know history, geography, mathematics, be fluent in several languages ​​(Russian, English, French, German, know Latin and Ancient Greek); be able to speak eloquently, be able to play any musical instrument, dance, draw; suppress selfish interests; be restrained, do not scream, do not cry; do not insult anyone (even servants) and do not allow yourself to be insulted; know that showing your grief, weakness or confusion is undignified and indecent. be neat, keep an eye on appearance

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One of the principles of noble ideology was the belief that the high position of a nobleman in society obliges him to be an example of high moral qualities: “To whom much is given, much will be required.” The noble child was oriented not towards success, but towards an ideal: he should be brave, honest, educated not in order to achieve anything (fame, wealth, high rank), but because he is a nobleman, because he has been given a lot because that's how it should be.

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The rule “to serve faithfully” was part of the code of noble honor and was a moral law. Self-esteem clearly drew the line between sovereign service and lackey service. An episode from “The Captain’s Daughter” by A.S. is indicative in this regard. Pushkin, when Andrei Petrovich Grinev gives instructions to his son: “Farewell, Peter. Serve faithfully to whom you pledge allegiance; obey your superiors; Don’t chase their affection; don’t ask for service; do not dissuade yourself from serving; and remember the proverb: take care of your dress again, but take care of your honor from a young age.” Noble honor was considered perhaps the main class virtue. According to noble ethics, “honor” does not give a person any privileges, but, on the contrary, makes him more vulnerable than others. Ideally, honor was the basic law of behavior of a nobleman; it was absolutely and unconditionally more important than profit, success, safety and simply prudence.

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Scrupulously guarding his honor, the nobleman, of course, took into account purely conventional, etiquette standards of behavior. But the main thing is that he defended his human dignity. A heightened sense of self-esteem was nurtured and developed in the child by a whole system of different, sometimes outwardly unrelated demands.

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Regardless of the type of activity, courage was considered an absolute virtue of a nobleman. But the courage and endurance required of a nobleman were almost impossible without corresponding physical strength and dexterity. At the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where Pushkin studied, time was allocated every day for “gymnastic exercises.” Lyceum students learned horse riding, fencing, swimming and rowing. Let's add to this getting up at 7 am, walking in any weather and usually eating simple food. The training and hardening differed in that physical exercise and the load should not just improve health, but contribute to the formation of personality. In other words, physical trials were, as it were, equalized with moral ones - in the sense that any difficulties and blows of fate had to be endured courageously, without losing heart and without losing one’s dignity.

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To break this word meant ruining your reputation once and for all, so a surety on your word of honor was absolutely reliable. Noble ethics demanded respect for individual rights, regardless of the official hierarchy. From an early age, the belief “you don’t dare insult!” was brought up from an early age. was constantly present in the mind of the nobleman, determining his reactions and actions.

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For a well-bred noblewoman, knowledge of French, English and German, the ability to play the piano, needlework, a short course in the Law of God, history, geography and arithmetic, as well as something in history was necessary French literature. Not only girls, but also adult young ladies were not supposed to walk down the street alone, unaccompanied by a teacher and a livery footman. They tried to wean the girls from talkativeness, excessive gestures, and superstitions and instill caution, restraint in expression, the ability to listen carefully and speak quietly. At the same time, in a secular society it was necessary to be able to conduct and maintain a conversation. Good manners were mandatory: violations of etiquette, rules of politeness, and external honor towards elders were not allowed and were severely punished. Children and teenagers were never late for breakfast and lunch; they sat quietly at the table, not daring to talk loudly or refuse any dish.

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The nobility as the highest ruling class in Russia. The Mironovs and Andreevs are the most famous representatives noble families, their origin. Features of types noble estates. Hunting as one of the favorite pastimes of the nobles, a characteristic of social life.

Nobility n In the era of feudalism, an urgent need arose to create a clear and binding system of laws regulating the relationship between a vassal (feudal lord) and his overlord (major feudal lord). Thus arose the class of nobility, main responsibility which was the unconditional defense of its overlord and his interests, as a rule, with arms in hand. Since then, a nobleman is necessarily a warrior, often a military leader.

The vassal received from the overlord land and other land for life material goods, as well as a certain number of souls. n Then there was a transition to the right of hereditary ownership, and the noble class significantly strengthened its role in society. The eldest son of a nobleman father inherited his father's possessions, and his youngest son was obliged to become a military man. Therefore, while the nobility existed, it was a military class. n



n Family nobility - inherited from ancestors along with the family estate. Among the family nobles, the pillar nobles stood out especially - those who could prove their nobility for more than 100 years (for example, the Eropkins, Scriabins, Sergeevs and some others).

n Granted nobility - nobility conferred by decree for outstanding merits or as a result of long, blameless service. Granted nobility can be hereditary or lifelong. The inheritance is transferred to the children of the granted nobleman, and the lifelong is given personally and does not pass to the children.



n In Russia, the nobility most often complained to retired military personnel as an encouragement. n Titled nobility - nobles who have a TITLE: prince, count, baron... n Untitled nobility - nobles who do not have such family titles. There were more untitled nobles than titled ones.

The nobility in Russia arose in the 12th century as the lowest part of the military service class, constituting the court of a prince or a major boyar. n The word "nobleman" literally means "a person from the princely court" or "courtier". The nobles were taken into the service of the prince to carry out various administrative, judicial and other assignments. n

n Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστεύς “most noble, noblest birth” and κράτος, “power, state, power”) - form government, in which power belongs to the nobility.

n The aristocracy is based on the idea that only a select few, the best minds, should rule the state. But in reality, the question of this chosenness finds different solutions; in some aristocracies the determining factor is nobility of origin, in others military valor, the highest mental development, religious or moral superiority, and finally, also the size and type of property. However, in most aristocracies several of these factors, or all of them, are combined to determine the right to state power.



The nobles considered themselves the best people states. Whether they had such reasons or not, they talked about it. A.S. Pushkin believed that this is precisely the meaning of the nobility: to be the most perfect, most educated and most decent people in Russia. n For this reason, they are given privileges that separate them from the common people, estates that give them the opportunity to live without worrying about a piece of bread. n

Noble Code of Honor n A nobleman could not do much that was forgiven to a commoner, but was not forgiven to him. Because he's a nobleman. Because that is why ranks, estates and privileges are given.





n Important for understanding the moral principles of the nobility are ideas about honor, valor, patriotism, dignity, and loyalty. n In 1783, the book of the Austrian educator I. Felbiger, “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” was published for the first time, translated from German and edited with the participation of the Empress.

n Consisting of numerous rules of conduct and advice on housekeeping, it became a kind of encyclopedia of morals and life attitudes, and was used as tutorial for public schools. She urged young nobles to be afraid of meanness, that is, unseemly actions and obscene deeds that lead to loss of honor.



Implementation of the new goal of noble education in Russia in the 30s XVIII century was brought under strict government control. n New government educational establishments, first of all, cadet corps and institutes for noble maidens were closed. Parents signed a special “announcement” in which they stated that they were handing over their child for upbringing and education for a 15-year period and would not demand their return or short-term leave (remember the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum). n

n At the age of 12-15, cadets were instructed to “diligently experiment with the inclinations of their students” in order to find out who is more capable of which rank, military or civilian.” At the age of 15-18, teachers were supposed to “set examples of honor and those thoughts that lead to virtue...” and divide the cadets into those who go to military and civilian ranks,” giving them the opportunity to change their decision at any time; and at 18-21 years old - to help maturely choose a place of service for the Fatherland.



n Also in 1779, the Noble Boarding School was opened at Moscow University - a closed educational institution for men, combining gymnasium and university classes. Here the class values ​​of service and loyalty to the State, the new ideal of the aristocrat, were in the foreground.

n What was new for Russia during this period was a change in attitude towards women’s education. Institutes and boarding schools for noble maidens were popular. n Noble modesty in behavior, prudence, kindness, hard work and homeliness, knowledge of foreign languages, love of books and other secular “virtues” formed the image of an ideal noblewoman.



n The entire content of education in women's boarding schools and institutes was focused on nurturing these qualities. The beginnings of sciences, including foreign languages, the rudiments of mathematics and natural science, architecture, familiarization with heraldry, handicrafts, the law of God and the “rules of secular behavior and courtesy” were designed to provide girls with the necessary intellectual level for communication in their social circle.

n Closed women's educational institutions had strict internal rules and regulations. The pupils were under the constant supervision of matrons and teachers, who were entrusted with the responsibility of being an “hourly example” for them. n The purpose of female noble education was not preparation for any service, but the education of the ideal wife of a nobleman.



n Changes in everyday life and culture emphasized the separation of the nobility into a privileged class. Cultural achievements became one of the noble class privileges, which determined the nobility as the main object of the bearer of cultural traditions.

n The behavior of the nobles changed by the 18th century. New moral positions have emerged, including self-respect based on inner dignity and honor, courtesy, gratitude, decency, and respect for women. n “Have a heart, have a soul, and you will be a man at all times. ... the main objective all human knowledge is good behavior,” wrote V. O. Klyuchevsky, quoting D. I. Fonvizin.



At the same time, the moral origins of behavior developed by previous centuries, such as reverence for God, respect, modesty, respect for age, birth, social status. n The etiquette that was formed in Russia played an important role in the development of the Russian state. Etiquette rules reflected the needs of society for thoughtful and courteous behavior of its members, which was based on moral assessment and aesthetic beauty actions and actions taken. n



n Behavior began to be viewed in close connection with moral positions, as external manifestation internal content of the personality. The nobleman was given the task of self-knowledge, that is, the study of one’s strengths and weaknesses, self-improvement in accordance with the requirements of conscience, and the creation of one’s personality.

n How deep a person is, so much is his personality. Always and in everything there should be more inside than outside.” “Never lose self-respect. And don’t argue with yourself when you’re alone. May your conscience be the measure of your rightness and the severity of your own verdict more important than other people’s opinions. »



Giving practical advice For self-improvement, moralizing literature recommended “controlling oneself,” “restraining one’s emotions, talking about oneself as little as possible with others, since praising oneself is “vanity, and blaspheming baseness and vice.” n Having become an individual, a person could build relationships with others “with a sense of his dignity, but without any arrogance, characteristic only of low souls,” wrote N. Karamzin. n

n A number of principles of behavior were mandatory for everyone: “Be pious, kind-hearted, temperate, kind and courteous.” n Courtesy was understood as the main feature of culture. This is behavior that reflects the desire to please others, decency.



n The literature of that time simply and clearly instilled the basic principles of courtesy: the absence of rude manners, unnaturalness in clothing, words and actions, as well as the desire to please everyone and be pleasant in communication. It was necessary to treat everyone according to their dignity, but to everyone with courtesy: without pretense, demonstrate their respect and obedience to their superiors, and their favorable disposition to their inferiors.

n Such moral and aesthetic principles of communication were formed as courtesy and helpfulness, beneficence and gratitude, frankness and sincerity, beauty of manners, movements and actions.



Recently, the oldest Russian popular science and regional studies magazine “Around the World” (published since 1861) published interesting material on its pages: “Codes of honor in Russian Empire».

We have already looked at the history of “” - its origin and popularity, analyzed in detail the reasons for Pushkin’s duel and the details of its conduct - conditions, place, time, consequences, .., but how the real dueling boom in the Russian Empire with its rules and “code of honor” arose , - we haven’t talked about this yet. Let's get better!

Having reprimanded a stranger for talking during a performance, modern man may not fear for his life. And in the 19th century, Alexander Pushkin came with his seconds to another nobleman precisely on this occasion.

At first, duels in Russia did not take root for a long time - in the 17th century they were started only by foreigners in Russian service; but in the 19th century a real dueling boom began. However, a single generally accepted code never emerged. Perhaps because no one wanted to attract the attention of the authorities as the author of detailed instructions for committing a criminal offense, which duels were considered to be since the time of Peter I. So the fighters, with the help of their seconds, discussed and prescribed the rules by which they were going to fight or shoot, focusing on established traditions and precedents, advice from experienced duelists and foreign codes.

In 1894, Alexander III, with an order entitled “Rules for the resolution of quarrels that occur among officers,” actually legalized duels as a way of resolving issues of honor for the military and placed duels under the control of officer courts.

Since then, several domestic dueling codes: Count Vasily Durasov (1908), Alexei Suvorin (1913), Major General Joseph Mikulin (1912) and others. But they all differed in details from each other and from existing practice.

Participants

Before late XIX century, the duelist is undoubtedly a nobleman. “I am a Russian nobleman, Pushkin; my companions will testify to this, and therefore you will not be ashamed to deal with me,” this is how the poet introduced himself to a certain Major Denisevich in order to challenge him to a duel.

The purpose of any duel- nothing more than compensation for damage caused to honor, and honor is the prerogative of the noble class. By the 20th century, class boundaries were blurring and non-nobles were also laying claim to the possession of honor, and therefore its defense.

“When a nobleman is challenged by a commoner, the first is obliged to reject the challenge and give the latter the right to seek satisfaction through judicial procedure,” the Durasov Code prescribes. However, the duel that took place in the year of its publication between the nobleman Black Hundred deputy Nikolai Markov and the raznochinsky cadet deputy Osip Pergament did not seem to anyone to be a violation of custom.


Duel between Isabella de Carazzi and Diambra de Pottinella. Jusepe de Ribera. 1636

The duelist must be physically fit for a duel: mentally healthy, capable of holding a weapon and fighting. Theoretically - over 18 years old, under 60. And, of course, the duelist was a man. Ladies' duels happened in the West, but did not take root in Russia. When the cavalry maiden Nadezhda Durova was a second in a duel, her colleagues did not know that the cornet Alexandrov was a woman, and they did not see any contradiction with dueling traditions.

A person unable to defend his honor on his own had the right to nominate a replacement. It could be a relative, or, in the absence of such, an old and close friend. For the woman’s honor, the man in whom she was insulted also had the right to participate in the duel. It was not welcomed when close relatives, boss and subordinate, creditor and debtor came against each other.

Occasion

The reason for a duel, in essence, is always the same - an insult to honor. However, the duelists had very different reasons for mutual insults. “How many fights have we seen for a just cause? Otherwise, everything is for actresses, for cards, for horses or for a portion of ice cream,” stated a character in the story “The Test,” written in 1830 by Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky.

You could get a summons in the theater for making comments about the acting, at a party for repeating gossip, on the street for a misunderstood gesture.

Source: cyrillitsa.ru

In the winter of 1822, Lieutenant Colonel Sergei Starov demanded satisfaction from Pushkin because of the music at a public ball. The poet ordered the orchestra to play a mazurka, interrupting the quadrille ordered by Starov’s subordinate, and the lieutenant colonel considered this offensive to the entire regiment. The duel took place, both missed.

A lady was often involved in the conflict. In September 1825, society was agitated by a duel between the courtier, aide-de-camp Vladimir Novosiltsev, and the poor nobleman, lieutenant Konstantin Chernov. The aide-de-camp officially became engaged to the lieutenant's sister, but due to the disapproval of his mother, who considered the bride not noble enough, he postponed the wedding under various pretexts. In the end, the damage done to the honor of the entire Chernov family could only be repaired by bloodshed. The duelists mortally wounded each other. The lieutenant’s funeral turned, in the words of cultural critic Yuri Lotman, into “Russia’s first street demonstration.” The assembled crowd was indignant against social inequality - within the noble class.

Fights directly for political reasons in the Russian Empire until the beginning of the 20th century they were rare. But with the establishment of the State Duma, parliamentary debates more than once gave rise to challenge. Thus, in 1909, a duel ended the conflict between two deputies of the same party - Alexander Guchkov and Count Alexei Uvarov. Guchkov slightly wounded the enemy, the count fired into the air. When Guchkov was elected chairman of the State Duma the following year, he had to temporarily resign in order to serve his sentence for this fight in the fortress by a court verdict.

Denial of satisfaction without apology for the insult and without good reason left a stain on the reputation of both sides. It happened that a person whose challenge was rejected decided to commit an attempt or suicide in order to restore honor.

Anyone who evaded a duel lost the right to further defend his good name in duels. The codes of the early 20th century ordered the officer who did this to immediately resign as unworthy of service. In practice, people quite often found a way to avoid bloodshed; conflicts often ended with the reconciliation of the parties after the challenge.

Weapon

Russian duelists usually chose one of three types of weapons to resolve issues of honor: swords, sabers or pistols. Since the 18th century, European craftsmen have been producing special paired weapons for duels: the chances of the combatants should be equal.

They fought with swords or sabers, by prior agreement, either without moving from the spot, or moving around the area designated for the fight. It was recommended to fencing with a bare torso or wearing only a shirt, so that thick clothing would not interfere with the duelist and would not provide him with additional protection. However, in Russia they preferred to shoot. On the one hand, when shooting, the difference in training did not affect the result as much as in fencing, which is why, by the way, civilians willingly chose a pistol duel. On the other hand, a duel with a firearm had a greater chance of being fatal: more dangerous meant more honorable.


Humor: Duel (Lieutenant Rzhevsky shoots because of Natasha and the brute Bezukhov because of a tree) Photo: AST

Pistol duels were different - the duelists shot in turn or simultaneously on command, standing still or moving towards each other. Sometimes a so-called barrier was marked between them - marks limiting minimum distance, the distance that opponents can approach each other, usually from 8 to 20 steps. In another version, the duelists walked towards each other not in the direction of the barrier, but along the lines marked by the seconds parallel lines. Depending on the rules of the fight, the shot was given from three seconds to a minute. The one who unloaded the pistol first was forbidden to shoot in the air.

The especially desperate ones shot almost point-blank - from three steps through a scarf, which they held between themselves with their left hands. So, from three steps in 1824, Ryleev sorted things out at gunpoint with his sister’s lover, Prince Konstantin Shakhovsky. The first bullet lightly wounded Ryleev. Twice the opponents' bullets hit the weapon, and the seconds stopped the duel.

There was also a way to shoot at a signal, standing together in a fresh grave.

Some fighters measured themselves with composure and without weapons. The so-called “American duel” was resorted to in 1861, when Warsaw Governor-General Alexander Gershtenzweig and the Governor of the Kingdom of Poland, Karl Lambert, argued about power. The dignitaries drew lots: the mediator handed them two ends of a handkerchief. Gershtenzweig, who took hold of the one on which the knot was tied, shot himself according to the terms of the duel.

Seconds

After the challenge was made and accepted, all negotiations about the terms of the duel were to be conducted not by the fighters, but by their seconds (of which there could be from one to three). Taking a servant as a second was considered disrespectful to the enemy: the second should be an equal. If the seconds failed to reconcile the opponents, they discussed all the nuances of the duel and the rights of the participants, chose and marked a place for the duel, and invited a doctor. A lot depended on these people; it was not without reason that the dueling theorist of the early 20th century, Bruno de Laborie, wrote: “It is not pistol bullets or the point of a sword that kill, but bad seconds.”


Duel, Lisbon Portugal, July 14, 1908

Even before the duel began, the seconds ensured that everything was done according to the rules. It was important not to be late. According to the codes, if one of the opponents forced himself to wait for more than 15 minutes, the other had the right to leave the place of the duel and declare the latecomer to have evaded the duel.

Russian literary critic Lotman calculated that Onegin in Pushkin’s novel arrived for the duel with Lensky about two hours later than the agreed time. Such negligence, according to the researcher, indicates that the author wanted to make the hero a murderer against his will.

And a conscientious second in Zaretsky’s place, Lotman noted, was obliged to use the violation of the regulations as a chance to cancel the duel and reconcile the parties. However, in practice, punctuality was often neglected. When in 1909 two poets, Maximilian Voloshin and Nikolai Gumilev, agreed to fight over the poetess Elizaveta Dmitrieva, they were both almost an hour late, but the duel nevertheless took place.

The theme of honor duels is explored in the film “The Duelist,” a historical thriller with elements of mysticism, which was released in wide Russian release on September 29, 2016. The director of the film is Alexey Mizgirev, in leading role Petr Fedorov. The film takes place in St. Petersburg in 1860. Main character, a retired officer, makes a living by going to fights instead of other people. In reality, dueling traditions, however, left very few opportunities to replace the participant in the duel with an outsider: if the summoned person proved his incompetence, it was customary for his honor to be defended by a relative or close friend. But the hero of the film is able to surprise the viewer - according to the script, he is not an ordinary person.

Before placing the opponents in their starting positions, the seconds examined their weapons and clothing; then they gave signals for battle, monitored the time and compliance with the rules. Having noticed the violation, they were obliged to stop the fight. The seconds announced the end of the duel, recorded its result in the protocol, and took away the wounded.

Having become involved in a conflict, the seconds could engage in a fight among themselves. Alexander Griboedov had a chance to participate in such a “quadruple” duel, and he himself unwittingly became the culprit of the discord.

The future author of the comedy “Woe from Wit” was friends with ballerina Avdotya Istomina. When she quarreled with her lover, Vasily Sheremetev, Griboedov took the girl to his friend, Count Zavadovsky, with whom he was then living. Out of jealousy, Sheremetev challenged Zavadovsky to a duel, and with the condition that the seconds, Griboyedov and his namesake Yakubovich, the future Decembrist, should also shoot. In 1817, the first duel took place on the outskirts of St. Petersburg, and Sheremetev was mortally wounded. Yakubovich was sent from the capital to serve in the Caucasus. When Griboyedov was passing through Tiflis in the fall of 1818, Yakubovich found him, and the duel took place. The writer missed, the enemy shot him in the palm. 11 years later in Tehran, when Persian religious fanatics massacred the Russian diplomatic mission, the body of its leader, Griboyedov, was identified among those killed by his hand crippled in that duel.

After the revolution, the noble class and its customs were done away with, and duels had no place left in the new Soviet state. But the memory of dueling traditions sometimes came to life. In the 1940s, the son of two poets, Lev Gumilyov, in the heat of a furious dispute on the topic of religion, challenged the writer Sergei Snegov to a duel. The duel did not take place because it was impossible to obtain suitable weapons in the Norilsk Gulag forced labor camp, where the disputants were kept.

Unusual duels

Nude. British doctor Humphrey Howarth was convinced that particles of clothing entering the body with a bullet would inevitably cause inflammation. In 1806, he appeared naked for a duel. His opponent, Lord Barrymore, considered the situation ridiculous and called off the fight.

Balloons. In 1808, the duelists de Grandpré and Le Piquet, competing for the favor of an artist of the Paris Opera, shot, rising into the sky together with their seconds on two balloons. Grandpré hit the opponent's ball, and Pique and his second crashed.

Drums. Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith and actor Will Ferrell bear a striking resemblance to each other. In 2014, the musician jokingly told his double that he was actually very different from him, superior in beauty and talent. Word by word it came to a challenge to a duel... on drums. Stars dressed alike staged a drum battle on Jimmy Fallon's late-night TV show. The host declared Ferrell the winner.

Not only poets risked their lives in duels and...

…composer. The duel between George Frideric Handel and his colleague Johann Matteson was more like a fight than a duel. In 1704, in the finale of Matteson's opera Cleopatra, the two composers did not share a place at the harpsichord. They pulled out swords and started a fight near the theater building. The duel ended when Matteson's weapon broke on a button on Handel's caftan.

…artist. In 1870, the writer Edmond Duranty sharply criticized the paintings of his friend, Edouard Manet. The artist was seriously offended and challenged Duranty to a duel, giving him a public slap in the face in a cafe. They fought with swords, and with such frenzy that the weapon was bent. Manet slightly wounded his opponent, after which the people of art made peace and the friendship continued. Manet's second was the writer Emile Zola.

…dictator. In 1921, the socialist Ettore Ciccotti challenged the experienced duelist Benito Mussolini to a duel because he called him in the newspaper “the most despicable of people who infected social life Italy." The politicians locked themselves in the building and sorted things out with swords until Ciccotti became ill with his heart.

…choreographer. In 1958, near Paris, 52-year-old choreographer Serge Lifar, a native of Kyiv, and 72-year-old ballet impresario of Chilean origin, Marquis Georges de Cuevas, crossed swords. The duel was led to by a conflict over changes that Cuevas made to Lifar's choreography in the ballet Black and White. The fight ended in the seventh minute, when the choreographer was slightly wounded in the arm. The duelists made peace.