How quickly does blood plasma volume increase? Improving the composition and quality of blood

Full recovery from blood loss occurs within a week; during this period you need to carefully monitor your diet. Proper nutrition, a balanced diet and strict adherence to it are the path to rapid restoration of blood cells. It's important to remember a few key rules eating food after donating blood or losing it, which is especially important for donors.

Restoring blood with fluid

Even for a completely healthy person, it is important to monitor the body’s water balance. Take as much fluid as possible throughout the day. In addition to water, you can drink various compotes, juices diluted with water (undiluted ones have too concentrated a composition, and consuming them in this form is harmful).

To increase the volume of circulating blood, you can drink tea, herbal infusions, fruit drinks, rosehip or nettle infusion.

It is also useful to brew currant leaves.

Specialist scientists have proven that drinking red wine (Cahors) is good for health, including restoring blood. However, everything must be dosed.

Many people claim that drinking red wine before every meal is beneficial, but this is not true. Every day, the body should receive an amount of wine of no more than 150 milliliters. Red wine contains components such as bioflavonoids, which help protect blood vessels and absorb the required amount of iron in the body. For this reason, people who donate blood are advised to drink a glass of wine daily, but only if the person does not have allergic reactions or other contraindications to it.

Blood Products

When planning your diet, you should consult your doctor. Ignoring the instructions of a specialist may lead to complications. All foods should be high in iron and protein.

Quickly restore blood with meat and fish

In the foods consumed, not only the amount of iron content is important, but also its form. In modern medicine there is the concept of “heme iron” (heme is the basis of which hemoglobin is composed). Most heme iron is found in meat and meat products. There is ten times more of it than in fruits, vegetables or red wine, and it helps the body recover after blood loss.

Some seafood contains large amounts of highly absorbable iron. Among them you can highlight fish (especially red salmon, sardines are also good), oysters, shrimp and shellfish.

Vitamin C is known to improve the absorption of iron in the body, so it is effective to simultaneously consume lean meats and citrus fruits or vegetables that contain vitamin C.

Beef liver and porridge. In addition to eating meat and minced meat, you can add beef liver to your diet, as it is rich not only in protein, but also in other useful components: iron, zinc, calcium, copper, sodium, a complex of amino acids (lysine, methionine, tryptophan) and vitamins A and B. In addition to all of the above, it really affects the increase in hemoglobin in the body, which will certainly be restored after its use.

Legumes and seeds

Any soybean products, such as tofu or soy sauce, contain a large amount of iron. However, there is even more of this beneficial substance in white pumpkin seeds. Its microcomponents contain about 4.2 milligrams per serving, therefore, in order for the body to recover from blood loss, it is recommended to consume pumpkin seeds.

A high iron content is also observed in porridges, especially buckwheat. This is incredible healthy porridge surpasses many others in terms of protein and iron content. Significant content folic acid helps normalize blood circulation in the body and restore it. Buckwheat porridge contains calcium and B vitamins, so this porridge is simply necessary for a patient who is restoring blood.

Fruits and vegetables that restore blood. A reliable and rich source of iron is found in vegetables: artichokes, chard, potatoes in their skins, broccoli, tomatoes. One of the most effective means to restore blood - spinach. It contains vitamin B - folate, which promotes the regeneration of blood cells and cells of the whole body. Folate helps strengthen the walls of blood vessels and stabilizes blood pressure, which can prevent sudden stroke.

In the list of fruits that restore blood and help compensate for the lack of any elements in its composition, the leaders are kiwi, peaches and citrus fruits.

Apples are one of the most effective products to cleanse and restore blood. They are especially useful for stabilizing the lymphatic system, which contributes to normal blood circulation throughout the human body. Another advantage of apples is that they contain components for the rapid and proper absorption of iron. However, this important and healthy fruit should only be consumed in its peel and without cutting it into pieces, otherwise all the beneficial substances will not be absorbed into the human body, and the blood will take longer to recover.

Walnuts and dried fruits

Walnuts are incredibly healthy. They contain unsaturated fatty acids - oleic, linoleic, linolenic. In terms of protein content, walnuts are very close to meat. At the same time, they contain many minerals: iron, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and various trace elements that promote the restoration of blood cells and affect various processes exchange in the body.

Scientists at Texas Tech University recently proved that dried fruits have a beneficial effect on the formation of hemoglobin in the blood and on its restoration. After a number of studies, it was concluded that regular consumption of dried fruits by children and adults increases the level of hemoglobin in the blood. The results of their work were published in 2007 in the journal Maternal and Child Health. Based on the above, we can conclude that when restoring blood, it is important to include dried fruits in your daily diet - figs, dried apricots, prunes, seedless raisins, dates, etc.

Products containing vitamins B12 and B9

The process of red blood cell formation directly depends on the influence of vitamin B9 or folic acid on it. The best sources of vitamin B9 are:

A diet low in vitamin B12 promotes the formation of megaloblasts (large immature red blood cells). When megaloblasts form, red blood cells are deprived of the ability to transport oxygen throughout the body to the tissues of the entire body. The formation of megaloblasts is a consequence of abnormal cell division in the bone marrow, which occurs due to a lack of vitamin B, which promotes DNA synthesis and the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow area.

Therefore, it is very important to ensure adequate intake of vitamin B12. It is found in the following products:

The restoration of blood in the body should be treated very delicately. There is no need to immediately run to the nearest pharmacy and buy various drugs that promise to speed up blood regeneration in the body. This can be very dangerous, since a sharp increase in hemoglobin can lead to a number of unpleasant and undesirable consequences.

There are many foods that you can add to your diet for a certain time and systematically follow it. In this case, blood restoration will be painless and guaranteed to be successful, because the products are unlikely to cause harm.

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how to increase the amount of blood in the body?

just not chemistry.

somehow in a natural way...

Then the blood is filtered in the kidneys and part of it, in the form of urine, flows into the bladder. Blood volume will decrease again. Go to the toilet and drink water... and so on all my life.

In general, the spleen is responsible for hematopoiesis. It needs to be strengthened and nourished.

Drink FEROPLEX, it helped me!

Increasing hemoglobin is another matter. There is meat for this, beef for example, it is not fatty. Other foods contain either little iron or it is poorly absorbed. You can also drink it with orange juice, this increases bioavailability.

QUANTITY OF BLOOD IN THE BODY

Blood circulates in a closed vascular network, so its volume must correspond to the volume of the vascular bed. Total body blood volume is a species characteristic and is usually expressed as a percentage of body weight. The average blood volume is: in a horse 9.8%, in cattle 8.0%, in small cattle 8.2%, in a tallow type pig 4.6%, in a meat type pig 7%. In humans, blood volume is about 7% of body weight.

Males tend to have a larger blood volume than females due to their increased red blood cell content. With age, blood volume decreases and dehydration of the body occurs.

To determine the volume of blood, some harmless dye (for example, congorot) is injected into it. After the paint is distributed throughout all the vessels, take a portion of blood from a vein and determine the concentration of this paint in it. Then the volume of blood in which this dye is distributed is calculated. For the same purpose, the method of labeled atoms is used. Blood is taken from the animal, red blood cells are separated and incubated in a solution containing radioactive phosphorus. Red blood cells adsorb it from the solution and become “labeled.” They are reintroduced into the blood of the same animal and after some time the radioactivity of the blood is determined.

Of the total blood volume, only about half circulates throughout the body. The remaining half is retained in the dilated capillaries of some organs and is called deposited. The organs in which blood is deposited are called blood depots (Fig. 3.1).

Spleen. It contains up to 16% of all blood in its lacunae - capillary processes. This blood is practically excluded from the circulation and does not mix with the circulating blood. When the smooth muscles of the spleen contract, the lacunae are compressed and blood enters the general channel.

Liver. Contains up to 20% of blood volume. The liver acts as a blood depot due to the contraction of the sphincters of the liver

veins through which blood flows from the liver. Then more blood enters the liver than flows out. The capillaries of the liver dilate, the blood flow in it slows down. However, the blood deposited in the liver is not completely excluded from the bloodstream.

Subcutaneous tissue. Deposits up to 10% of blood. There are anastomoses in the blood capillaries of the skin. Some of the capillaries expand, fill with blood, and blood flow occurs through shortened paths (shunts).

Lungs can also be classified as blood storing organs. The volume of the vascular bed of the lungs is not constant; it depends on the ventilation of the alveoli, the blood pressure in them and on the blood supply to the vessels of the systemic circulation.

Thus, the deposited blood is excluded from the bloodstream and generally does not mix with the circulating blood. Due to the absorption of water, the deposited blood is thicker and contains more formed elements.

The significance of deposited blood is as follows. When the body is in a state of physiological rest, its organs and tissues do not need increased blood supply. In this case, the deposition of blood reduces the load on the heart, and as a result it works at 1/5. 1/6 of its power. If necessary, blood from the blood depots can quickly pass into the bloodstream, for example, during physical work, strong emotional experiences, inhalation of air with a high concentration of carbon dioxide - i.e. in all situations where it is necessary to increase the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to organs.

The autonomic nervous system is involved in the mechanisms of redistribution of blood between stored and circulating: sympathetic nerves cause an increase in the volume of circulating blood, and parasympathetic nerves cause the transition of blood to the depot. When a large amount of adrenaline enters the blood, the blood leaves the depot.

In case of blood loss, blood volume is restored primarily due to the transition of tissue fluid into the blood, and then the deposited blood enters the bloodstream. As a result, the plasma volume is restored much faster than the amount of formed elements.

With an increase in blood volume (for example, when a large volume of blood substitutes is introduced into the blood or when a large amount of water is drunk), part of the liquid is quickly excreted by the kidneys, but most of it passes into the tissues and is then gradually eliminated from the body. This restores the volume of blood filling the vascular bed.

Blood belongs to the supporting trophic tissues. It consists of cells - formed elements and intercellular substance - plasma. The formed elements of blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. Blood plasma is a liquid. Blood is the only tissue of the body where the intercellular substance is a liquid.

To separate the formed elements from the plasma, the blood must be protected from clotting and centrifuged. The shaped elements, as heavier ones, will settle, and above them there will be a layer of transparent, slightly opalescent liquid yellow- blood plasma.

If the blood volume is taken as 100%, then the formed elements make up about 40.45%, and plasma - 55.60%. The volume of formed elements in the blood, mainly red blood cells, is called hematocrit value or hematocrit. Hematocrit can be expressed as a percentage (40. 45%) or in liters of red blood cells contained in 1 liter of blood (0.40. 0.45 l/l).

When an animal has not been given water for a long time or it has lost a lot of fluid (excessive sweating, diarrhea, profuse vomiting), the hematocrit value increases. In this case, they talk about “thickening” of the blood. This condition is unfavorable for the body, since the resistance of the blood during its movement significantly increases, which causes the heart to contract more strongly. In order to compensate, water passes from tissue fluid into the blood, its excretion by the kidneys decreases and, as a result, thirst arises. A decrease in hematocrit often occurs in diseases - with a decrease in the formation of red blood cells, increased destruction, or after blood loss.

Chemical composition of blood. Blood plasma contains 90.92% water and 8.10% dry matter. The dry residue consists of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, intermediate and final products of their metabolism, minerals, hormones, vitamins, enzymes and other biologically active substances. It is important to note that, despite the constant exchange of substances between blood and tissues, the composition of blood plasma does not change significantly. Very narrow limits of fluctuations in the content of total protein, glucose, minerals - electrolytes. Therefore, the slightest deviations in their level, going beyond physiological boundaries, lead to severe disturbances in the functioning of the body. Other blood components - lipids, amino acids, enzymes, hormones, etc. - can have a wider range of fluctuations. Blood also contains oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Consider the physiological significance individual substances contained in the blood.

Squirrels. Blood proteins consist of several fractions that can be separated in various ways, for example by electrophoresis. Each fraction contains a large number of proteins with specific functions.

Albumin. They are formed in the liver and have a small molecular weight compared to other proteins. In the body they perform a trophic, or nutritional, function, being a source of amino acids, and a transport function, participating in the transfer and binding of fatty acids, bile pigments, and some cations in the blood.

Globulins. They are synthesized in the liver, as well as by various cells - leukocytes, plasma cells. The molecular weight of globulins is greater than that of albumins. The globulin fraction of proteins can be further divided into three groups - alpha, beta and gamma globulins. Alpha and beta globulins are involved in the transport of cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid hormones, and cations. The gamma globulin fraction includes various antibodies.

The ratio of albumin to globulin is called the protein ratio. In horses and cattle there are more globulins than albumins, and in pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, rabbits and humans, albumins predominate. This feature affects some physicochemical properties of blood.

Proteins play a large role in blood clotting. Thus, fibrinogen, which belongs to the globulin fraction, during coagulation turns into an insoluble form - fibrin and becomes the basis of a blood clot (thrombus). Proteins can form complexes with carbohydrates (glycoproteins) and with lipids (lipoproteins).

Regardless of the function of each protein, and there are up to 100 of them in the blood plasma, they collectively determine the viscosity of the blood, create a certain colloid pressure in it, and participate in maintaining a constant blood pH.

Physiological fluctuations in the amount of total blood protein are associated with the age, sex, productivity of animals, as well as the conditions of their feeding and maintenance. Thus, newborn animals do not have gamma globulins (natural antibodies) in their blood; they enter the body with the first portions of colostrum. With age, the content of globulins in the blood increases and at the same time the level of albumin decreases. With high milk productivity of cows, the protein content in the blood increases. After vaccination of animals, an increase in the protein content in the blood occurs due to immunoglobulins. In healthy animals, the total amount of protein in the blood is 60.80 g/l, or 6.8 g/100 ml.

As is known, characteristic feature chemical composition proteins is the presence of nitrogen, so many methods for determining

Determinations of the amount of proteins in the blood and tissues are based on determining the concentration of protein nitrogen. However, nitrogen is also present in many other organic substances that are products of protein breakdown - amino acids, uric acid, urea, creatine, indican and many others. The total nitrogen of all these substances (with the exception of protein nitrogen) is called residual, or non-protein, nitrogen. Its amount in plasma is 0.2. 0.4 g/l. Residual nitrogen in the blood is determined to assess the state of protein metabolism: with increased protein breakdown in the body, the content of residual nitrogen increases.

L i p i d s. Blood lipids are divided into neutral lipids, consisting of glycerol and fatty acids (mono-, di- and triglycerides), and complex lipids - cholesterol, its derivatives and phospholipids. Free fatty acids are also present in the blood. The content of total lipids in the blood can vary within wide limits (for example, in cows lipids normally fluctuate within 1.10 g/l). When the content of lipids in the blood increases (for example, after eating a fatty meal), the plasma begins to noticeably opalescent, becomes cloudy, acquires a milky tint, and in chickens, when the plasma settles, fat can float up in the form of a thick drop.

Carbohydrates. Blood carbohydrates are represented mainly by glucose. But the glucose content is determined not in plasma, but in whole blood, since glucose is partially adsorbed on red blood cells. The concentration of glucose in the blood in mammals is kept within very narrow limits: in animals with a single-chamber stomach it is 0.8..L.2 g/l, and in animals with a multi-chamber stomach it is 0.04. 0.06 g/l. In birds, the blood glucose level is higher, which is explained by the peculiarities of the hormonal regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

In addition to glucose, the blood plasma also contains some other carbohydrates - glycogen, fructose, as well as products of intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids - lactic, pyruvic, acetic and other acids, ketone bodies. There are more volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the blood of ruminants than in animals of other species, this is due to the peculiarities of ruminal digestion. Blood cells contain a small amount of glycogen.

As already mentioned, the blood contains various biologically active substances - enzymes, hormones, mediators, etc.

Mineral composition of blood. Inorganic substances in the blood can be either in a free state, i.e. in the form of anions and cations, or in a bound state, entering the structure of organic substances. Most of all the cations in the blood are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chlorine anions, bicarbonates, phosphates, hydroxyl group OH." The blood also contains iodine, iron, copper, cobalt, manganese and other macro- and microelements. General content mineral substances in the blood are constant (up to 10 g/l) for each type of animal.

It should be borne in mind that the concentration of individual ions in the blood plasma and in the formed elements is not the same. Thus, sodium, calcium, chlorine, bicarbonates are predominantly found in plasma, while erythrocytes contain a higher concentration of potassium, magnesium and iron. However, in erythrocytes, leukocytes, and blood plasma, the concentration level of individual ions (ionogram) is constant, which is maintained by continuous active and passive transport of ions through semi-permeable cell membranes.

Physiological fluctuations in the content of minerals in the blood are determined by nutrition, age, productivity of animals and their physiological state. Blood properties such as density, pH, and osmotic pressure depend on their content.

How to increase blood in the body?

As you know, many people suffer from such an ailment as anemia, which causes a person a lot of problems in his life, first of all, poor health, poor health, and so on and so on, the list of unpleasant things can be continued for a long time.

There are many drugs to treat this disease, but not all drugs can really help with this.

What would you recommend is the most effective, preferably natural remedy?

From natural remedies For anemia, it is often recommended to eat regular boiled beets. At least before it was advised to eat it after operations in order to restore normal blood levels in the body. I also know that eating liver is good for the blood, preferably beef liver, as far as I remember, and boiled.

But because I don’t like the products listed above, so I drink freshly squeezed pomegranate juice myself, it helps me a lot not only to restore blood, but also simply for immunity.

Anemia is essentially a low level of hemoglobin in the blood. It is necessary to find out the cause and treat the cause of low hemoglobin, and then take measures to increase it. If this is related to peptic ulcer stomach, then iron supplements are prescribed in the form of injections. In this case, it is necessary to eat boiled meat, fish, eggs, dairy products - protein foods, because hemoglobin is a protein containing iron ion. There is a lot of iron in buckwheat and liver.

How to increase blood volume

Today I read an article published in the magazine “Technology for Youth,” which I reproduce in full below. In this article, I was confused by the incredibly large numbers that I highlighted in some places for clarity. If among the forum participants there are specialists who have practical knowledge that confirms or refutes the data on changes in blood volume written in the article, please comment on this article.

I am posting the article in question as a separate message due to message space limitations.

The minute volume of blood circulation is not equal to the volume of circulating blood.

The amount of liquid that can be poured into a corpse is large, since there is no vascular tone in a corpse, and naturally, the capacity of the venous bed increases significantly.

Source - textbook "Human Physiology".

Don't read Soviet newspapers before going to bed.

Candidate of Medical Sciences,

I.F. wrote about this paradox of incompatibility back in 1873. Zion: “The amount of blood in the body is in itself too insufficient for all the organs of our body to simultaneously perform all their functions in full force.” And in 1953, the physiologist Pappenheimer determined that for normal minute blood supply, the amount of blood in human vessels must be at least 45 liters. In addition, there is ample evidence that the volume of blood in the body spontaneously increases or decreases without any forced infusions or blood loss.

When a person moves from a state of rest to physical activity, his blood volume increases to an average of 15 liters, and with intense exercise - up to 45 liters. In marathon athletes, despite the loss of 4 kg of fluid during running, blood volume increases by 6 - 8% by the end of the distance, and in weightlifters at the time of lifting weights - by 60%. Frequent breathing, holding it, lack of oxygen, massage, stress and emotional stress increase blood volume by 1.5 - 2 times.

An amazingly rapid increase in blood volume of up to 50% is observed in pregnant women when their body position changes: from a side lying position to a vertical position. The emotional state of patients before surgery sometimes leads to a decrease in blood volume, and after surgery, despite unrecovered blood loss, to an increase.

The fastest increase in blood volume is observed in the heart. Doppler echocardiography revealed that in the cavity of the left ventricle, during one cycle of the isometric tension phase, the blood volume increases from 41 ml to 130 ml! Cardiologists know that when an attack of fibrillation in the right atrium is relieved with an electrical discharge of up to 400 J, the blood volume at the discharge site instantly increases by 60% without additional inflow. The same phenomena occur in experiments. For example, with mechanical or electrical stimulation of individual coronary, cerebral or intestinal arteries, a separate increase in blood volume of up to 500% can be caused in them.

However, the opposite effect also occurs in the body, which can just as quickly reduce blood volume from the initial value. This happens with all types of shock, anemia, arteriovenous shunts, Beri-Beri disease, with limited contractile functions of the heart itself caused by atrial flutter, myopathy, atrial fibrillation, acute heart attack myocardium, surgical interventions. A deficiency of blood volume in the body is observed during anesthesia: morphine, ether, chloroform, pentatal, with the introduction of acetylcholine, penicillin, snake and spider venoms, and alcohol intoxication. Incredibly, resuscitators have observed cases where the infusion of 1.5 - 2 liters of foreign blood did not increase, but decreased its total volume in the patient's body.

The reduction in blood volume was carried out in an experiment on volunteers. When, after several hours of being in a horizontal position, they were passively, without their own effort, transferred to a vertical position, then in all subjects the pressure dropped and the blood volume decreased to 66%, but after 5-8 minutes the original blood volume was restored. Similar consequences were observed among astronauts at the moment of landing.

Each cardiac arrest and connection of a heart-lung machine (CBP) is always accompanied by a decrease in blood volume. Knowing this, surgeons add more than liters of donor blood to the existing blood in order to prevent the emptying of blood vessels and the death of internal organs from bleeding.

Pathologists also note a decrease in blood volume. When blood is pumped out of the body soon after death, it takes up a volume of 7 to 8 liters, and a day after settling, its amount decreases. During embalming, prosectors pour in special liquids to fill all the vessels. The same amount of latex is poured into the vessels of the human body to obtain anatomical corrosion preparations. Spontaneous reduction in donor blood volume. stored in hermetically sealed vessels, causes constant headaches for managers of blood transfusion stations, since the volume of plasma collected is always greater than its actual amount.

Physiology explains a sudden increase in blood volume in the body as a result of an increase in heart rate and stroke volume of the ventricles of the heart in one minute. From which it follows that the circulation rate of the same amount of blood can increase its volume and fill it with a superior capacity of the vessels. But it is obvious that only due to the speed of rotation it is impossible to transform blood into... Therefore, physiologists are forced to look for other explanations for this phenomenon, proposing hypotheses about the accumulation of blood in capacitive vessels (deposition) or the filling of individual organs (sequestration), slowly or rapidly circulating fractions, the actions nervous system on the constriction and dilation of blood vessels, chemically active hormones and gas filling of the blood. However, research in recent decades has definitively established that there is no deposition of blood in the human body; the entire capacity of the vessels is filled with moving blood, and it has the property of spontaneously increasing or decreasing the volume, as well as the speed of its movement, regardless of the contraction of surrounding muscles, the diameter of the vessels and the influence of the nervous system. systems. Therefore, the hypotheses put forward do not bring certainty to this hemodynamic contradiction.

The path to unraveling this phenomenon was suggested to us by the phenomena occurring with the blood in the artificial circulation machine. When blood is pumped out of the veins, bubbles appear in it, it foams and increases in volume. This occurs due to the accelerated release of gas from it into the discharged cavity of the AIK oxygenator. To eliminate this foam, anesthesiologists inject antiphons into the blood or add drops of alcohol, which are known to have the properties of suppressing cavitation in water.

This specific action defoamers led us to the hypothesis that cavitation may also be the cause of changes in blood volume. Moreover, this phenomenon was recorded in the heart based on its background frequency of sounds back in the 70s. Institute of Acoustics of the USSR Academy of Sciences. However, of all the effects accompanying cavitation, only sound ones were considered as a source of noise of myocardial contractions. Cavitation in the blood of venous vessels was also recorded in experiments during changes in body position, exercises in centrifuges, and during the transition to weightlessness. In general, its effect in the blood circulation has not been studied, much less associated with the regulation of blood volume.

As is known, cavitation is the occurrence of cavities, cavities or bubbles filled with gas at those points of a flowing liquid where its speed increases and the pressure becomes below the critical value of structural strength. In places where a liquid ruptures, in the presence of gases dissolved in it under conditions of variable pressure, an unlimited growth of cavitation bubbles occurs (gas diffuses from the liquid into them). They increase in size, the pressure inside them increases and exceeds the pressure environment. The energy of movement of such bubbles and their vibrations generate new bubbles around them. Their number increases, and this increased volume creates ponderomotive forces, leading to the displacement of the surrounding fluid and its self-propulsion.

If there are few gases in it, and the pressure changes periodically, then the emerging bubbles quickly “collapse,” which gives rise to cumulative jets that develop pressure exceeding thousands of atmospheres. Such powerful energy is accompanied by sound, electromagnetic, luminescent, temperature and kinetic effects. When there are a lot of gases dissolved in water, the bubbles, without “collapsing,” remain in it for a long time and by their quantity they increase its volume, which serves as a source of ponderomotive forces.

Blood plasma is 90% water, which is approximately 4.5 liters. It is here that, apparently, hydrodynamic cavitation should occur. In order to make sure that blood has the ability to change its volume under the influence of cavitation, model experiments were carried out simulating the phase of isometric tension of the heart, in the cavities of which the greatest increase in blood volume is observed.

This phase occurs after diastole, when the ventricles of the heart are already filled with blood. All valves and coronary arteries are blocked by tension in the myocardial muscles. At this moment, there is no additional blood flow, but its volume in the hermetically sealed cavity of the ventricle somehow increases by 300% in 0.06 s. The myocardium stretches and the heart acquires spherical shape. We tried to reproduce the dynamics of the pressure drop during this period of heart activity in an experiment.

The same experiments with changes in pressure in the syringe were carried out with arterial and venous blood. The impact on the blood of a sharp pressure drop also causes cavitation processes in it. At the same time, electromagnetic pulses, a blue-green glow, the appearance of bubbles, and an increase in blood volume were recorded. accompanied by ponderomotive forces that set the blood in motion, a rise in temperature, and oxygen fluctuations. In experiment, volume increase tap water amounted to 0.5-1.5%, and blood%. This 10-fold increase in volume indicates that the structural strength of water in the blood is an order of magnitude lower than tap water.

The peculiarity of water in plasma is that 4.5 liters of it are located among dispersed lamellar (layered) suspended particles of electrically charged erythrocytes and leukocytes, trillions of protein and fat micelles, total area which are more than 1000 m2. As a result, water is distributed on it in the form of a two-dimensional film, which is also filled with dozens of salts and gases O2, CO2, H, N2, N02, which are present in it both in a dissolved state and in the form of microbubbles under a pressure of about 100 mm Hg. .st. And this leads to enormous osmotic pressure in the blood - 7.6 atm. In addition, the three-dimensional network of molecular bonds of water undergoes continuous fluctuations with periodicity.

All these factors impart instability in the surface tension of plasma water. Therefore, any mechanical, temperature, electromagnetic and chemical effects on the blood easily break the molecular bonds of water in it. Gases instantly rush into these microcavities. Cavitation nuclei appear, which at low pressure grow thousands of times in diameter and turn into caveolae. At the same time, the microbubbles in the blood increase in volume. All of them together change the volume of the same blood mass. This effect reveals the essence of cavitation in the blood.

Compared to experiments, the heart increases blood volume by 300% in one cycle. Such a significant change is associated with some hidden functions in the heart. To understand them, the hemodynamics of cardiac cycles were analyzed in detail.

Before the onset of atrial diastole, before the ostia of the pulmonary veins open, the blood flow in front of them stops and the pressure in them increases. In diastole, into the empty cavities of the atria, where at this moment the pressure is low, two flows rush towards each other: one from the pulmonary veins, and the second returns (regurgitates) from the ventricle, and the atrioventricular valves slam behind it. The volume of blood in the atria increases, the pressure in them increases, and the movement of blood is inhibited. Some of this blood regurgitates into pulmonary veins. The pressure in the atria momentarily drops, and the sphincters of the pulmonary veins contract. The atrial cavities are isolated from blood flow. At this time, a second wave of increase in blood volume occurs in them, the pressure of which opens the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles, which are in a state of diastole, and blood begins to flow into them even before the onset of atrial systole.

This self-movement of blood occurs because in its increased volume forces appear that are ahead of muscle contractions by 0.02 - 0.04 s. The subsequent atrial systole pushes the remaining blood into the ventricles. towards which part of the blood regurgitates from the aorta, and the aortic valves slam behind it. The accelerated flow of blood slows down, increases in volume, and part of it returns back to the atria, and the pressure in the ventricles drops briefly. Following this regurgitation, the atrioventricular valves slam shut (despite the fact that the pressure in the ventricles at this moment is less than in the atria) and the ventricles are isolated from blood flow. In them, just as in the atria, the blood volume increases a second time, giving the heart a spherical shape.

Under the pressure of the increased blood volume, the aortic valves open and blood accelerates into it. Despite the fact that blood is ejected from the ventricles, its volume and pressure in the ventricle continues to increase. And only after 0.02 s, the myocardial muscles begin to contract following the outgoing volume of blood. Most of the ejected blood goes into the aorta, and its smaller flow - “residual blood” - returns to the ventricles and the aortic valves slam behind it.

When studying regurgitation using contrast Doppler echocardiography, it was possible to register the appearance of voids (cavities) in the blood volume of the heart cavities at the moment when the return flow of blood leaves it. The appearance of cavities in the cavities of the heart coincides in time with a short-term decrease in blood volume and a drop in pressure in it. This allows us to understand the mechanism of the “spontaneous” increase in blood volume in the heart.

The return jet leaves at a speed of 3 to 15 m/s, developing a pressure along its path in the intervalvular space up to 800 mm Hg, leaving behind a cavity (vacuum cavity) in the blood volume with negative pressure and exposed ionic bonds. This is an active source of “pure” physical strength. The surrounding blood from the area with high pressure rushes towards it. But since at this moment the blood is already limited to the hermetically sealed cavity of the heart, the movement of its particles towards the cavity is possible only with a massive rupture of the blood water layers. Blood gases rush into the formed microcavities and bubbles appear. Their increasing number increases blood volume. This vacuum provocation of the heart instantly extracts gases dissolved in it from the blood and increases the size of gas bubbles in the blood, which is the reason for such a significant increase in its volume in the isometric tension phase (1). The instantaneous increase in this volume endows the blood with ponderomotor forces, which act quickly and separately from the muscular contractions of the heart. Since the force of muscular contractions of the heart is only 1/6 of the movement of blood, the remaining 5/6 is accounted for by the ponderomotive forces of cavitation, which, as can be seen, are pushing forces vis a fronte.

Now it can be argued that the heart has one more function: the initiation of cavitation in the blood, which is the main source of force for its circulation through the vessels. It became clear how the mass of blood present in the body is capable of changing its volume and filling the capacity of blood vessels that exceeds it at once. Thanks to this, our body does not need to deposit blood and carry extra pounds (2).

The effects of blood cavitation can explain the still unclear etiology of many cardiovascular diseases: hypertension, cerebral strokes, cardiac ruptures, sudden death from cardiac tamponade and many others. The cause of these pathologies is clearly seen as an inadequate increase in blood volume (the presence of microbubbles in mitochondria indicates that cavitation processes occur not only in the blood flow, but also in the internal structures of the cell (according to V.V. Vinogradov)) leading to the destruction of surrounding tissues or to the collapse of volume. Electron microscopic studies have revealed that the intracellular fluid of all tissues of the body, as well as blood, is filled with gas bubbles (3).

Our experiments on the vessels of the mesentery (thin film) of the rat intestine showed that at the site of local irritation of the inner surface of the vessel, bubbles always appear in the same places. Their appearance was accompanied by glow, electrical discharges, an increase in the thickness of the plasma, and a change in the direction and speed of movement of its particles. Those. cavitation can occur in blood vessels, as well as in the heart.

When bubbles appeared in the field of view in the experiment, these areas were instantly frozen with liquid nitrogen and subjected to electron microscopy. It turned out that a high density of bubbles was observed in those parts of the vessel where its diameter was greatest. It was here that the zone of the nucleus of endothelial cells, which protruded into the lumen of the vessel bed, came closest to the outer membrane of the cell. The entire surface of this nuclear shell was covered with pore complexes, above which a mass of bubbles froze.

The pore complexes are a ring partially covered with a membrane, in the center of which there is a tubercle (4). The electrical potential on it can reach 5 V. A corrugated microtube channel extends from the ring of pore complexes to the center of the core. The structure of this complex is nothing more than a biovibrator, the frequency vibrations of which are designed to break the plasma water and initiate cavitation in it (5).

The peculiarity of the effect of pore complexes and non-sheathed nerve endings on plasma particles and blood cells is that, without coming into contact with them, they are able to change their direction of movement at a distance. All cells of the body are attached to certain places, and the substances sent to them are in the blood stream. To remove them from it, pore complexes and nerve endings create cavitation bubbles, the vibrations of which, by resonance frequencies, telekinetically select red blood cells, platelets, proteins with certain markers from the longitudinal blood flow and attract them to a specific pore of the target cell. Thus, experiments have revealed several functions of pore complexes and sheathless nerve endings - the ability to change the volume of blood, endow it with ponderomotive forces at a local location in the vessel, and telekinetically control the movement of plasma particles and blood cells.

The heart also, with the help of hypertrophied pore complexes of trabeculae, sinuses and Tebesia vessels (mini-hearts), telekinetically controls the blood flows entering its cavities (see “TM” No. 9, 2004). Mini-hearts sort blood cells, assemble them into solitons, and direct them to specific locations in the ventricular outflow ducts (7).

The largest number of pore complexes and non-sheathed nerve endings are found in those vessels that lack muscle fibers. First of all, these are veins and, especially, the vena cava with a thin vascular wall. It is still unclear how, without contraction mechanisms, it fills the right heart every second required quantity blood. If on its inner surface the pore complexes and nerve endings are destroyed by injury or burn, then the flow of blood to the heart stops. This means that along with their damage, the forces that lift blood through the vena cava to the heart also disappear.

The action of cavitation forces can explain many phenomena in the living world. Similar to the mechanism of rising blood in the veins, plants, with the help of their pore complexes, suck water through the stems and trunks. The roots penetrate the soil tens of meters deep, and tender blades of grass split asphalt and concrete in the spring. Deep-sea crabs use a forceful pulse of cavitation to strike their victims from a distance. Corals use pore complexes to select the minerals they need from the water and build thousands of kilometers of reefs out of them. Thus, cavitation is a powerful, universal and controllable energy source of the living world.

Any condition in which there is an increase vascular capacity, will also cause an increase in blood volume. The increase in vascular capacity is initially accompanied by a decrease in mean filling pressure, leading to a decrease in cardiac output and blood pressure. The drop in pressure causes sodium and water to be retained until blood volume increases enough to fill the additional reservoir. For example, during pregnancy the capacity of the vessels of the uterus, placenta and other hyperplastic organs increases, as a result, blood volume usually increases by 15-25%.

Similarly for patients with varicose veins in the dilated veins of the lower extremities, up to 1 liter of additional blood can sometimes accumulate. In such cases, the kidneys retain water and salts until the pressure in the circulatory system increases to required level, in which the kidneys will be able to maintain fluid balance in the body.

There are several conditions, in which the volume of extracellular fluid becomes very large, and the blood volume is maintained at a normal level or even slightly decreased. These conditions are usually caused by leakage of fluid and protein into the intercellular space, which contributes to some reduction in blood volume. The kidneys' response to such conditions is similar to those that occur after bleeding: the kidneys delay the excretion of salt and fluid in an attempt to return blood volume to normal. However, most of the additional fluid passes into the intercellular space, causing further development swelling.

In the clinic alone from common reasons swelling is the so-called nephrotic syndrome. In this condition, due to the high permeability of the glomerular membranes, plasma proteins enter the urine in large quantities. During the day, losses range from 30 to 50 g of protein, while its concentration in plasma decreases, sometimes amounting to less than 1/3 of the norm. As a result, the oncotic pressure of the plasma decreases, the filtration of fluid in the capillaries of all organs and tissues increases, which, in turn, causes edema and reduces the volume of plasma.

Renal sodium retention in nephrotic syndrome is due to many mechanisms, the triggering of which occurs due to the leakage of protein and fluid from the plasma into the intercellular space, including the activation of various sodium retention systems (for example, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone) and, possibly, due to an increase in the activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The kidneys continue to retain sodium and water until plasma volume is restored to near normal levels.

However, due to high sodium and water retention the dilution of proteins in the plasma increases, promoting even greater leakage of fluid into the tissues. As a result, significant water retention by the kidneys occurs and massive edema develops, which disappear only after treatment is prescribed, aimed at restoring the protein content in the plasma.

Nephrotic syndrome-like The dynamics of changes are also observed in liver cirrhosis. In addition, with this pathology, there is a pronounced decrease in plasma protein concentration due to the death of hepatocytes, as a result, the liver’s ability to synthesize proteins decreases. Liver cirrhosis is also accompanied by significant proliferation fibrous tissue in the parenchyma, which significantly impedes blood flow through the portal vein system.

In turn, this leads to an increase hydrostatic pressure in the hepatic capillaries, which also allows fluid and proteins to leak into the abdominal cavity, called ascites. As soon as the fluid and protein leave the vascular bed, a response will occur from the kidneys, the mechanism of development of which is similar to other conditions that occur when plasma volume decreases. In other words, the kidneys continue to retain salt and water in the body until plasma volume and blood pressure are restored to normal. In some cases, with cirrhosis, the plasma volume may even exceed the norm due to an increase in the capacity of the vascular bed: high pressure in the portal vein system causes stretching of the vessels, as a result of which their volume increases.

Hematocrit, or htc, is one of the indicators determined during decoding general analysis blood. Its clarification is important for identifying a number of different pathologies. The convenience of the method lies in the fact that this indicator is determined automatically using an analyzer.

Normal hct

The normal hct value depends on gender as well as age. The norm for different categories of patients looks like this:

• men from 18 to 45 years old - 39–49%;
• men aged 45 years and older - 40–50%;
• women from 18 to 45 years old - 35–45%;
• women aged 45 years and older - 35–47%;
• newborn children - 33–65%;
• children from 2 weeks to 1 year - 33–44%;
• children from 1 year to 5 years - 32–41%;
• children from 6 to 11 years old - 33–41%;
• teenagers from 12 to 17 years old: boys - 35–45%; girls - 34–44%.

Reasons for increased hct

An increase in hct is possible in the following cases:

1. Prolonged hypoxia (lack of oxygen): in this case, the body tries to increase the efficiency of transporting oxygen through the blood system from the lungs to all cells of the body, increasing the amount of hemoglobin and the absolute content of red blood cells (which contain hemoglobin). It appears in people who smoke, tourists who have been high in the mountains, people with diseases of the respiratory system, and mountaineers.
2. Dehydration (dehydration): often occurs when there is infectious diseases Gastrointestinal tract, peritonitis, extensive burns.
3. Blood diseases and kidney cancer: excessive blood thickness may indicate the presence of leukemia or kidney cancer. This increases the formation of erythropoietin. If you suspect such pathologies, you should undergo additional examination.

The hct level in a blood test may increase if the number of red blood cells in the blood increases. A similar condition is observed in the following diseases and conditions:

1. Development of polycystic kidney disease or hydronephrosis.
2. Erythremia.
3. Long-term therapy with glucocorticosteroids.

Reasons for decreased hct

A decrease in hct is less common than an increase. A decrease in hct is possible in the following cases:

1. The presence of severe bleeding.
2. Pregnancy.
3. With slow formation of red blood cells.
4. Presence of anemia.
5. With an increase in blood volume in the body.
6. With the rapid death of red blood cells.
7. Blood thinning.

A decrease in hematocrit sometimes indicates the presence of a pathology such as hypoplastic anemia.

Overhydration does not mean that the patient consumes an increased amount of fluid, but there is an excessive amount of it in the blood. The reason for the development of this condition is often poisoning, kidney failure, the presence of viruses or other infectious agents in the body. All these factors lead to deviation of the hct indicator from the norm.

The presence of hyperproteinemia indicates that protein in the body intensively absorbs fluid, and this leads to a decrease in blood density. An increase in the amount of protein in the blood may indicate liver disease.

A complete blood count helps determine the hematocrit level. This result will be expressed as a percentage of formed components to the total blood volume. This indicator also reflects the content of red blood cells in the blood, since these cells make up the bulk of the formed elements. Sometimes hematocrit is expressed in liters per liter.

A reduced hematocrit in the analysis should attract special attention from patients, as it indicates poor health.

Today this analysis is done in various diagnostic centers and specialized clinics.

There are other reasons for a reduced hct value:

1. A decrease in hct value can occur in the presence of chronic inflammatory processes.
2. A decrease in hematocrit may also indicate the occurrence of cancer.
3. Often the indicator decreases with compliance strict diet, starvation or poor diet.
4. The indicator may decrease with prolonged bed rest.
5. The hct value may be lower than normal in heart and kidney diseases. In the presence of such diseases, the volume of circulating plasma increases, which leads to a decrease in hematocrit.

If the hct level decreases, you should undergo a comprehensive examination of the body. A set of diagnostic measures will help to establish the cause of the decrease in hematocrit and promptly identify the development of the disease.

Sometimes there are cases of incorrect determination of the hct indicator. When deciphering a blood test, this indicator is often lowered. In this case, we can talk about a false hematocrit indicator.

A false decrease in hematocrit is possible in the following cases:

1. When taking blood for analysis, the patient is in a supine position.
2. With prolonged compression of a vein with a tourniquet.
3. In case of blood thinning. This situation is possible if blood for analysis is taken at the site of a recent infusion.

hct level during pregnancy

Hematocrit is a measure of the amount of hemoglobin in a patient's blood. During pregnancy, the number of red blood cells in the blood increases, as the total volume in the body increases. When visiting a gynecologist, pregnant women are required to undergo a hematocrit test. If in the transcript its indicator is reduced, this may indicate the development of anemia. In the absence of any diseases during pregnancy, the hematocrit level increases and returns to normal in the last trimester of pregnancy.

Naturally, during pregnancy, significant changes occur in a woman’s body, which affect the circulatory system. During childbirth, a woman may lose a significant amount of blood. If the hematocrit is low at the time of delivery, the woman may require a blood transfusion to avoid a threat to her life.

Signs of pathology and treatment

A decrease in hct may be indicated by:

• regular fatigue;
• increased heart rate (tachycardia);
• pale skin;
• presence of shortness of breath;
• hair loss.

Signs are more pronounced during pregnancy and in cases of acute anemia.

If the hematocrit level is low in the blood test, you should get rid of the cause of this condition. If the disorder is caused by an incorrect diet, the patient is prescribed medications containing iron, as well as a special diet that includes eating foods with a high iron content. These products include: liver, nuts, apples, eggs, fruits and red meat. You can increase your hematocrit with the help of Hematogen.

If the indicator has decreased due to taking any medications, you should stop using them. During pregnancy, a decrease in hct levels is not associated with illness; to increase it, medications that contain iron are prescribed.

In general, getting rid of pathology involves treating diseases that lead to a decrease in hematocrit. Accordingly, treatment is prescribed depending on the cause of this condition.

In conclusion, it should be said that the hematocrit level is a fairly important indicator in deciphering a blood test; its deviations from the norm may indicate many disorders in the body. It must be remembered that a decrease in hct levels may mean the presence of diseases such as anemia, bleeding, and the development of oncology. That is why it is quite important to promptly identify such a condition and seek help from a specialist to determine the cause of its occurrence.

Venous pressure

Human blood pressure is the tension that blood exerts on the walls of human blood vessels. When people talk about pressure, they often we're talking about about blood pressure (the pressure the blood exerts on the arteries). Everyone knows its norm, and many have a mechanical or electronic tonometer at home to measure it. In addition to blood pressure, a person’s venous blood pressure is determined.

Venous blood pressure shows how hard the blood from the veins presses on the heart. This indicator is an important factor in determining human health, and its deviation from the norm may indicate the presence of heart and lung diseases.

Normal blood pressure from the veins to the heart

Veins are vessels that carry blood to the heart, as opposed to arteries, where it travels from the heart to the organs. Compared to other types, the pressure in the veins is considered the most.

Venous blood pressure readings are displayed in millimeters of water. Normal pressure is considered to be between 60 and 100 mm of water. Art. This is an average indicator that changes with any movement of the human body.

To determine blood pressure in the right atrium, measure central venous pressure

The following factors can affect the flow of blood in the veins:

1. Total blood volume. With severe dehydration or significant blood loss, the patient experiences a sharp decrease in blood pressure.
2. Tone and elasticity of veins. Vein diseases negatively affect blood flow due to changes in their walls.
3. Respiratory process. The veins located in the human chest undergo changes every second during the breathing process. When you exhale, the pressure increases, and when you inhale, it decreases.
4. Contraction of the heart muscles. When the heart contracts, blood flows through the veins. With vigorous and increased contractions associated with physical activity, blood volume increases.
5. Work of skeletal muscles. During physical activity, a person's muscles actively contract, which increases venous pressure.

Measuring venous blood pressure is a very important procedure that can express the general condition of the patient and also indicate whether the treatment already prescribed is suitable for the patient.

Measuring venous pressure on the atrium is necessary in the following situations:

1. Before heart surgery.
2. If necessary, perform artificial ventilation on the patient.
3. In case of significant human blood loss.

Measurement technique

Venous pressure is measured by direct and indirect methods. The first method shows an accurate result, since when measuring it, a catheter is inserted into the patient’s vein and the pressure is measured directly. The second (indirect) method shows less accurate and often inflated indicators.

Venous pressure is measured using direct and indirect methods

To measure pressure using the direct method, it is necessary to insert a catheter into the superior or inferior vena cava. The vena cavae are the two main veins that drain into the human heart. The inferior vena cava carries blood from lower parts body - the abdominal cavity, lower extremities and pelvic organs, and the upper - from the head, neck, chest and upper extremities.

The Waldmann apparatus is considered one of the accurate methods for determining such pressure. This is the most popular method used in the rehabilitation treatment of patients, and you cannot do it yourself at home.

To determine pressure using the Waldmann apparatus you will need:

• catheter;
• phlebotonometer (a glass tube connected to a stand on which there is a pressure measurement scale);
• isotonic sodium chloride solution.

In addition to the Waldmann apparatus, venous blood pressure can be measured in the following ways:

• using a water pressure gauge;
• using a strain gauge (then the pressure indicator will be displayed on the monitor).

When measuring blood pressure, the patient should be in a supine position. The procedure is carried out in the morning on an empty stomach, after the patient has completely relaxed.

The danger of high pressure in the veins

With increased pressure in the veins, the patient notices a pulsation of the internal jugular vein, which is located on the person’s neck outside the carotid artery. If the result of measuring the patient’s venous pressure is an indicator that is higher than 110 mmH2O. Art., then it indicates possible cardiovascular diseases of the patient.

Pressure in the veins depends on many factors, including age.

The main causes of increased blood flow to the right atrium:

1. Hypervolemia.
2. Heart failure.
3. Arrhythmia.
4. Pulmonary hypertension.
5. Myocardial infarction.
6. Impaired activity of the right ventricle.

Increased venous blood tension in the body can also be affected by kidney dysfunction, which causes excess fluid in the body (overhydration). Heart failure in this situation is often indicated by the presence of tachycardia or hypotension.

Since the indicator of venous blood flow is not a constant value, the doctor establishes the fact of increased pressure when determining the general picture of the course of a particular disease. In cases where the patient requires a blood transfusion, during this procedure the level of venous blood pressure is always monitored, which can reach up to 200 mmH2O. Art.

Decreased venous blood flow

Venous hypotension in a patient occurs when the reading drops to 30 mmH2O. Art. and below. It can occur when the patient is physically exhausted and loses muscle mass, due to lack of movement during the disease process. When a patient consumes a large amount of diuretics that remove fluid, a sharp decrease in venous pressure also occurs.

Increased central venous pressure is caused by hypervolemia and heart failure of the right heart.

A low venous pressure may indicate the following processes:

1. Infection of the body through blood.
2. Disturbances in the functioning of the nervous system, functions responsible for blood circulation and breathing.
3. Anaphylactic shock.
4. Severe poisoning of the body (with profuse vomiting and diarrhea, rapid loss of fluid occurs).
5. Presence of asthenia.
6. Use of drugs that dilate blood vessels.

A decrease in the volume of venous blood in the body can also be affected by the development of diabetes mellitus, stomach and kidney diseases.

An assessment of the patient’s condition and his blood pressure is carried out in conjunction with the results of all tests and necessary studies.

Treatment for deviations from the norm

Venous pressure is an important factor influencing the general condition of a person. Unlike blood pressure, venous pressure is not symptomatic; to normalize it, it is necessary to eliminate the root cause of the deviation in the indicator. Before approval of treatment, a medical diagnosis of the patient is carried out, which shows the doctor an overall picture of the patient’s health. When prescribing therapy, the doctor must take into account possible contraindications.

For general prevention, the patient can be prescribed phlebotonics and angioprotectors - drugs that affect the general tone of the veins, improve their condition and stimulate metabolism in the body. The most commonly prescribed drugs are Venoton, Detralex, and Venosmin. If the pressure level is low due to a lack of circulating blood, the patient is given an infusion of infusion solutions or blood substitutes. Low blood pressure is often accompanied by hypoxia, in which a person is prescribed drugs to improve cerebral circulation.

If the patient has cardiovascular diseases or high blood pressure, treatment should be aimed at normalizing the functioning of the heart muscle. The patient is often prescribed various types diuretics, ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists and other hypertensive drugs that lower blood pressure.

Forecast

Problems with venous flow often occur in severe human illnesses, so the prognosis for recovery depends on the very cause of this difference.

1. Recovery from heart and lung diseases depends on the specific course of the disease and its severity.
2. If the volume of venous blood is low, it is necessary to promptly replenish the lack of fluid in the body with the help of intravenous infusions.

Most of the reasons influencing changes in pressure in the veins will be positively predicted if quickly provided medical care to the patient. Proper nutrition and proper drinking patterns are an excellent way to prevent heart disease. Fresh air and moderate physical activity will become the key to a healthy heart and blood vessels.

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Causes, symptoms, treatment of hypovolemic shock

A number of factors can cause a sharp and pronounced decrease in the volume of blood circulating in the body, and such a violation provokes the onset of hypovolemic shock. This critical condition can be provoked by various reasons: massive blood loss, irreversible loss of plasma, overdeposition of part of the blood into the capillaries, or vomiting or diarrhea leading to dehydration.

Normally, a certain volume of blood is present in the human body. About 80-90% of the total volume is circulating blood, and 10-20% is deposited. The first part performs the functions of blood, and the second is a kind of “reserve” and accumulates in the spleen, liver and bones.

If a significant part of the circulating blood is lost, then the baroreceptors are irritated, and the deposited part enters the bloodstream. This “replenishment” helps the body cope with the lack of blood, and the heart can function normally.

If the volume of deposited blood was not enough to replenish the bloodstream (for example, the blood loss was very massive), then the peripheral vessels sharply narrow, and the blood circulates only through the central vessels and is delivered to the brain, heart and lungs. Other organs begin to suffer from hypoxia and circulatory failure, the patient develops hypovolemic shock, and in the absence of timely assistance, death can occur.

At its core, hypovolemic shock is a compensatory reaction. Under certain conditions, it helps the body cope with a decrease in circulating blood volume. However, if full compensation is not possible, the shock reaction becomes decompensated and causes the death of the patient.

In this article, we will introduce you to the causes, symptoms and treatments of hypovolemic shock. This information will help you recognize this critical condition in time and take the necessary measures to eliminate it.

Reasons

Hypovolemia. Schematic illustration

Four main reasons can cause the development of hypovolemic shock:

• massive external or internal bleeding;
• loss of blood plasma or its liquid part during various pathological processes or injuries;
• dehydration with severe vomiting or diarrhea;
• redeployment of a significant volume of blood into the capillaries.

The causes of blood loss can be massive bleeding that occurs due to severe injuries, fractures, certain diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory, genitourinary system and other organs. Massive loss of plasma is more typical for extensive burns, and plasma-like fluid can be irretrievably lost, accumulating in the intestine, with intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, or an acute attack of pancreatitis. The loss of isotonic fluid is provoked by severe vomiting or diarrhea that occurs when intestinal infections: salmonellosis, cholera, staphylococcal intoxication, etc. And with traumatic shock and some acute infections, a significant part of the blood can be deposited in the capillaries.

Development mechanism

There are three phases in the development of hypovolemic shock:

1. Under the influence of the factors described above, the volume of circulating blood decreases and a smaller volume of venous blood enters the heart. As a result, its stroke volume and central venous pressure decrease. Compensatory mechanisms are launched in the body, and part of the interstitial fluid enters the capillaries.
2. A sharp decrease in circulating blood volume stimulates the sympathoadrenal system and provokes irritation of baroreceptors. In response to this, the production of catecholamines increases, and the level of adrenaline and norepinephrine in the blood increases significantly. Under their influence, peripheral vessels sharply narrow and the heart rate increases. Such changes lead to a reduction in blood supply to the muscles, skin and almost all internal organs. The body tries to compensate for the blood deficiency in this way, and it is delivered only to vital organs - the heart, brain and lungs. For a short time, such protection is effective, but prolonged circulatory failure in other tissues and organs leads to ischemia and hypoxia. With the rapid restoration of blood volume after the first shock reaction, normalization occurs. If this volume was not quickly replenished, then the narrowing of peripheral vessels gives way to paralysis, and the volume of circulating blood decreases even more due to the transition of the liquid part of the blood into the tissues.
3. This stage is hypovolemic shock. Due to the constant decrease in blood volume, blood flow to the heart becomes less and blood pressure decreases. All organs begin to suffer from ischemia, and multiple organ failure develops. From a lack of blood, tissues and organs suffer in the following sequence: skin, skeletal muscles and kidneys, abdominal organs and, last but not least, the heart, brain and lungs.

We can draw the following conclusion: hypovolemic shock can be compensated and decompensated. When compensated, the degree of reduction in blood volume allows maintaining normal blood supply to vital organs. A critical decrease in blood volume causes an uncompensated shock reaction, which, in the absence of timely replenishment of the bloodstream and resuscitation measures, quickly leads to the death of the victim.

Symptoms

Expressiveness clinical symptoms in hypovolemic shock depends entirely on the volume and rate of blood loss. In addition, the course of this life-threatening condition may depend on a number of other additional factors: age, constitution of the victim and the presence of serious illnesses (especially diabetes mellitus, pathologies of the heart, kidneys or lungs).

The main symptoms of hypovolemic shock are:

• increasing heart rate and weak pulse;
• hypotension;
• dizziness;
• drowsiness;
• pallor with acrocyanosis of the lips and nail phalanges;
• nausea;
• dyspnea;
• changes in consciousness (from lethargy to excitement).

If signs of shock appear, it is recommended to immediately call an ambulance. This urgency is explained by the fact that shock can progress, and eliminating the causes of its development and replenishing lost fluid or blood is possible only with the help of a doctor.

A prolonged lack of sufficient blood volume in the body can cause:

• irreversible damage to the kidneys and brain;
• heart attack;
• gangrene of the limbs;
• lethal outcome.

Experts distinguish four degrees of severity of hypovolemic shock.

I degree

It is observed when there is a loss of no more than 15% of the circulating blood volume. In such cases, if the victim is lying down, then he has no signs of blood loss. Its only symptom may be tachycardia, which occurs when the body moves to a vertical position - the pulse rate increases by 20 beats.

II degree

Occurs when 20-25% of circulating blood is lost. The victim, who is in an upright position, experiences the following symptoms of blood loss:

• hypotension (systolic pressure not lower than 100 mm Hg);
• tachycardia (no more than 100 beats per minute).

In a horizontal position of the body, pressure indicators return to normal and overall health improves.

III degree

It is observed with the loss of 30-40% of circulating blood. The patient becomes pale, the skin becomes cool to the touch, and the volume of urine produced decreases. Blood pressure drops below 100 mm Hg. Art., and the pulse quickens to more than 100-110 beats per minute.

IV degree

Occurs when more than 40% of circulating blood is lost. The victim's skin becomes pale, marbled and cold to the touch. The pressure decreases significantly, and the pulse in the peripheral arteries cannot be felt. There is a disturbance of consciousness (up to coma).

Urgent Care

Hypovolemia of the first degree is eliminated by drinking salted water or special solutions for rehydration

Mild manifestations of hypovolemia can be eliminated by taking lightly salted water (you should drink it slowly, in small sips). If you have severe diarrhea, vomiting or high temperature causing profuse sweating, the patient should drink as much tea, fruit drinks, juices, decoctions or saline solutions (Ringer's, Regidron, etc.) as possible. Immediate consultation with a doctor in case of such hypovolemic reactions is also mandatory.

If more severe signs of shock are detected - a significant decrease in blood pressure, weakening and increased pulse, pallor and coldness of the skin - it is necessary to call an ambulance and begin providing first aid:

1. Lay the victim on a flat surface, raising his legs about 30 cm. Ensure him peace and immobility. If the victim is unconscious, then to prevent choking on vomit, the head must be turned to the side.
2. If you suspect a back or head injury, refrain from moving the patient or perform these actions with extreme care and precision.
3. In case of external bleeding, stop it: immobilize the limb, apply a pressure bandage or apply a tourniquet (be sure to indicate the time of its application). In case of internal bleeding, apply an ice pack to the area of ​​its source.
4. For open wounds, clean them of visible dirt, treat them with an antiseptic solution and apply a bandage with a sterile bandage.
5. Ensure optimal temperature conditions. The victim should be kept warm.

What not to do

1. Offer the patient water, tea or other liquids, as their entry into the respiratory tract can cause suffocation.
2. Raise your head, as this action will cause an even greater outflow of blood from the brain.
3. Remove objects stuck in the wound (knife, rod, glass, etc.), as this action may increase bleeding.

Pre-hospital medical care

After the ambulance arrives, infusion therapy begins, aimed at replenishing lost blood. To do this, the patient’s vein is punctured and saline solution, 5% glucose solution, Albumin or Reopolyglucin are injected. In addition, cardiac glycosides are administered to support cardiac activity and other agents for symptomatic therapy.

While transporting the patient to the hospital, doctors constantly monitor blood pressure and pulse. They are measured every 30 minutes.

Treatment

Depending on the preliminary diagnosis, a patient with hypovolemic shock is hospitalized in the intensive care unit of a surgical medical institution or in the intensive care ward of the infectious diseases department. After diagnostics, the scope of which is determined by the clinical case, a decision is made on the need for surgical treatment or a conservative treatment plan is drawn up.

Treatment goals for hypovolemic shock are:

• restoration of circulating blood volume;
• normalization of blood circulation in the brain, lungs, heart and elimination of hypoxia;
• stabilization of acid-base and electrolyte balance;
• normalization of blood supply to the kidneys and restoration of their functions;
• support for brain and heart activity.

Surgical treatment

The need for surgery arises when it is impossible to eliminate the cause of blood loss by other means. The method and timing of the intervention in such cases are determined by the clinical case.

Conservative therapy

A patient with hypovolemic shock is hospitalized in the intensive care unit

After admission to the hospital and a preliminary diagnosis has been made, to restore lost blood from the patient’s vein, blood is drawn to determine the group and Rh factor. While this indicator is unknown, a catheter is installed in the subclavian vein or 2-3 veins are punctured to infuse large volumes of fluid and blood. To control the volume of urine excreted and the effectiveness of correcting the shock state, a catheter is inserted into the bladder.

To replenish blood volume, the following can be used:

• blood substitutes (solutions of Poliglyukin, Reopoliglyukin, Albumin, Protein);
• blood plasma;
• same-type blood.

The volume of administered fluids is determined individually for each patient.

To eliminate ischemia, leading to oxygen starvation of tissues and organs, the patient is given oxygen therapy. Nasal catheters or an oxygen mask can be used to administer the gas mixture. In some cases, artificial ventilation is recommended.

To eliminate the effects of hypovolemic shock, the following medications may be indicated:

• glucocorticoids - used in large dosages to eliminate spasm of peripheral vessels;
• Sodium bicarbonate solution - to eliminate acidosis;
• Panangin - to eliminate potassium and magnesium deficiency.

If hemodynamic parameters do not stabilize, blood pressure remains low and less than 50-60 ml of urine is released through the urinary catheter in 1 hour, then administration of Mannitol is recommended to stimulate diuresis. And to maintain the activity of the heart, solutions of Dobutamine, Dopamine, Adrenaline and/or Norepinephrine are administered.

The following indicators indicate the elimination of hypovolemic shock:

• stabilization of indicators blood pressure and pulse;
• urine output is 50-60 ml per hour;
• increase in central venous pressure to 120 mmH2O. Art.

After stabilization of the patient's condition, treatment is prescribed aimed at eliminating the disease that caused hypovolemic shock. Its plan is determined by the data of diagnostic studies and is compiled individually for each patient.

Hypovolemic shock occurs when there is a critical decrease in circulating blood volume. This condition is accompanied by a decrease in the stroke volume of the heart and a decrease in the filling of its ventricles. As a result, the blood supply to tissues and organs becomes insufficient and hypoxia and metabolic acidosis develop. This patient's condition always requires immediate medical attention, which may include surgery to stop bleeding and conservative therapy aimed at eliminating the causes and consequences of shock.