French heroic epic

History of world literature: In 8 volumes / USSR Academy of Sciences; Institute of World Lit. them. A. M. Gorky. - M.: Nauka, 1983-1994.T. 2. - 1984. - pp. 517-522.

The epic of the Romanesque peoples - the French and the Spaniards - fits entirely within the framework of the X-XIII centuries. Only from the 9th century. Romance languages ​​clearly stand out and literary creativity begins in them. Not earlier than the second half of the 8th century. include historical events, the echoes of which are heard in the epic. This, of course, does not exclude the possibility that the folk poetry of the Romance peoples inherited some elements of the folklore tradition of the Germans, who created the first “barbarian states” in this territory - the Franks and Visigoths.

The transition from folk Latin to Old French and the beginning of the ethnic consolidation of the future French, as well as the first stage of feudalization, fall in France during the Carolingian era (VIII-IX centuries). This era appears in heroic poetry as a kind of epic time. The most prominent of the Carolingians, crowned Western Roman Emperor in 800, Charlemagne became an epic king, the invariably noble, majestic and powerful “gray-bearded Charles,” ruler of the epic “dear France.”

About 100 French heroic poems, the so-called “chansons de geste” (“songs of deeds”), apparently dating back to the 10th-13th centuries, have survived. and written in stanzas (loess), connected by assonances, which in later editions (XIII-XIV centuries) give way to exact rhymes. Assonance is specific to the ancient Romanesque (French and Spanish) epic, just as alliteration is to the Germanic epic. French epic verse in the monuments that have come down to us is a syllabic decasyllable.

The French epic took shape in the 9th-10th centuries. in oral folk art. The hypothesis of J. Bedier and his school about the formation of this epic in the 12th century. from chronicles and monastic legends is unconvincing. The French epic has come down to us mainly in the form of long poems, which are the result of a complex qualitative evolution of short epic songs (cantilenas), and not their mechanical unification (as G. Paris imagined). The bearers of the epic tradition in folklore France were jugglers, wandering folk singers similar to the German spielmans. The jugglers performed the poems in a melodious recitative, accompanying themselves on a small harp or viol. They performed in knight's castles and in city squares during fairs. The book poems that have reached us preserve very clear traces of the oral epic tradition. The original volume of heroic songs was probably small. Large poems were performed in several stages, as evidenced by the appearance at certain intervals of brief summaries of the previous presentation or hints anticipating the upcoming story in order to interest the listeners.

However, mentioning events that have not yet happened, “looking ahead” is not only a professional technique of an oral narrator, it also has a purely artistic meaning: the narrator draws the listeners’ attention to the prospect of a dramatic unfolding of events, to the sad fate of the heroes.

French gestures contain a lot of all kinds of epic clichés, constant epithets, repetitions, parallelisms, etc. Often similar expressions describe the gathering of troops, a duel with swords or spears, hand-to-hand combat, vilification of the enemy before battle, regret for a fallen hero, pursuit of a fleeing enemy, sleep and rest, the approach of a guest, weapons, etc.

The final line of a stanza is often repeated with some changes at the beginning of the next one. Themes that appear in one stanza are repeated and developed in the next, and this “picking up” is sometimes expressed in very clear structural forms.

Constituting the artistic pinnacle of the French epic, “The Song of Roland” is at the same time the oldest of the poems. The best surviving edition (in the Oxford manuscript) was made in the middle of the 11th century. Anglo-Norman scribe (4002 assonant verses). At the end of the manuscript, a certain Turold is mentioned, in whom some researchers mistakenly see as the author of the epic. He may in fact be the copyist or chief editor of the Anglo-Norman version. In addition, there is a Venetian assonant text in a 14th-century manuscript. in the French-Italian dialect (used by Italian folk singers) and two groups of rhyming manuscripts from the 13th-14th centuries. (preserved in Chateauroux and the libraries of Venice, Paris, Lyon, Cambridge). The exceptional popularity of the epic of Roland is evidenced by its adaptations in most Romance and Germanic languages, including the German poem of a certain “priest” Conrad (c. 1170), the Old Scandinavian “Karlamagnussaga” (c. 1240), which goes back to unexistent French sources. g.), two Latin adaptations - “The Song of the Betrayal of Gwenon” and “The History of Charlemagne and Roland” (the so-called chronicle of Pseudo-Turpin) and some others.

The Song of Roland tells the story of the battle of the Roncevalles Gorge, in the Pyrenees, of a French detachment that was attacked by the Saracens (Moors) at the end of Charlemagne's Spanish campaign. The rearguard of the French army, led by Karl's nephew and favorite Roland, died heroically in the name of “dear France” and Christianity, fighting countless hordes of Muslim Moors. The main culprit in the death of the detachment is Roland's stepfather, Ganelon, who, out of hatred for his stepson, entered into an agreement with the king of Zaragoza, Marsilius. For the death of Roland, his friend Olivier and all the “twelve peers”, Charles takes revenge by destroying a huge army gathered from different parts of the Muslim world. Ganelon was executed after the “divine judgment” that finally exposed him - the legal duel between his opponent (Thierry) and his relative (Pinabel).

The plot of “The Song of Roland” has a very specific historical basis, as evidenced by French and Arab chronicles. In 778, Charlemagne was summoned to Spain by one of the Muslim rulers, Ibnal Arabi, who led the fight against the Cordoba caliph Abderrahman. He promised Charles to give Zaragoza for help, but the ruler of Zaragoza refused to let the French in, and Charles had to leave; in addition, news of the Saxon uprising reached him. While crossing the Pyrenees passes, the Basques (Christians), avenging the destruction of the city of Pampeluna by Charles, killed the rearguard of the French army (August 15, 778). Based on Arab sources, it can be assumed that the Moors also partially participated in this battle, freeing al-Arabi, who was detained as a hostage by Charles. Einhard, who narrates half a century later in his “Biography of Charlemagne” about the damage inflicted on the Franks by the “treachery of the Basques,” names the names of the noblest knights who died at Roncesvalles. In most lists of this work, only two appear - the royal steward Eggihard and Count Palatine Anselm (both are not known for the Song of Roland), but in some lists, perhaps already under the influence of the emerging folk legend, "Hruodland, prefect of the Breton mark" is also named. i.e. the epic Roland.

In the VIII-IX centuries. In the context of frequent clashes between the Franks and the Spanish Moors, the anti-Muslim idea of ​​the struggle of the heir of Rome - the Christian Carolingian Empire - against the pagans who had taken over Spain was popular. It was during this era that the forced baptism of the vanquished was adopted - a motif that appears in the “Song of Roland.” Around 840, in the “Life of Louis,” written on behalf of the “Limousin astronomer,” the Spanish campaign of Charlemagne in 778 was interpreted in this spirit.

Based on the data presented, the largest modern Spanish philologist R. Menendez Pidal dates it to the 8th-9th centuries. not only the origin of the legend, but also the creation of the poem about Roland and the formation of the basic political concept known to us from the Oxford manuscript. The idea of ​​a “holy war” against Muslims came to life in the second half of the 11th century. during the preparation of the First Crusade. It is very important to note that during this period many French knights took part in the expulsion of the Moors from Spain under the banner of Alfonso VI of Castile. It is possible that legends and songs about Charlemagne in the 11th-12th centuries. included individual elements of the biography of Alphonse VI, whom a number of chronicles honorably call “Charlemagne,” although the hypothesis that the “Song of Roland” was entirely generated by the events of the reconquest at the end of the 11th century is, of course, unlikely.

Apparently, the main elements of the epic tale took shape in the 9th century. It is very possible that in the 9th century. “The Song of Roland” already existed, as R. Menendez Pidal believes, but science does not yet have solid evidence. The so-called “Hague fragment” confirms the existence of the genre of “songs about deeds”, at least in the second half of the 10th century. “The Song of Roland” certainly existed in the 11th century. According to the chronicle of William of Malmesbury (early 12th century), before the Battle of Hastings in 1066, the Norman juggler performed “Cantilena of Roland.” Probably this “Cantilena...” was of relatively small volume.

A comparative analysis of various editions of the “Song of Roland” shows that a number of episodes, in particular the battle of Charles with the Muslim army of Baligan (an ideological and artistic “tribute” to the First Crusade), the embassy of Blancandrin, the death and the very image of Roland’s bride, the trial of Ganelon’s guilt through a trial duel - later layers on the original plot basis.

In 1953, a Latin manuscript from the 11th century was published. from the archives of the monastery of St. Emiliana containing brief retelling archaic version of the Song of Roland. Here Charles’s Spanish campaign is limited to the siege of Zaragoza, there is not even a mention of Ganelon. It is possible that the legend about Ganelon (its prototype is considered to be the Sanskaya Archbishop Vanilo, who betrayed Charles the Bald in 859) was not initially included in the “Song”. The introduction of the image of Olivier, Roland's brother-in-arms, apparently occurred in the 10th century, since at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century. The previously unknown Latin name Olivarius becomes popular. Often two brothers or sons of two friends in this era are christened Olivier and Roland at baptism. The name Olivier itself probably goes back to the personification of wisdom in the olive tree and is associated with the traditional antithesis of prudence and courage, corresponding to the contrast in the characters of Olivier and Roland.

It should be noted that on the basis of the listed additions to the original core of the historical epic, the symmetrical compositional structure of the “Song of Roland” and its strictly logical system of images, as well as the clarity of the strophic structure, are built. These features of the “Song of Roland” are the result not only of a certain oral-poetic development, but also of literary processing, which, just like in the German epic, may have enhanced both the drama and the tragic coloring, uncharacteristic of folklore. The artistic merits of “The Song of Roland” are largely determined by the combination of oral-epic poetics with high poetic originality - a consequence of literary processing.

In the French epic, the stanzas that arose on a musical and lyrical basis do not always coincide with the narrative division. However, in “The Song of Roland” the stanza represents a strict unity, both lyrical and narrative, and the stanzas, as a rule, are grouped into peculiar triads. More strictly than in an oral epic work, the “Song of Roland” uses epic variation, that is, repetition, in a few words, of what has already been told earlier. Repeated triads occur in particularly pathetic places (Marsilius’s conspiracy with Ganelon, Roland and Olivier’s dispute over whether to blow the horn, Roland’s farewell to his sword). The epic variation in the description of Roland's death is used with great skill. This technique divides a single event into a number of visual pictures that complement each other. Roland says goodbye to the sword and tries to break it on a rock, lies down facing Spain, gives the glove to the angel, etc. The compositional structure of the poem is built on parallelisms.

The development of the action clearly includes a beginning (Ganelon's betrayal), a climax (battle) and a denouement (Charles revenge), which, in turn, are each divided into two stages, contrasting in their own way. The plot includes the embassy of Blancandrin and the embassy of Ganelon, the culmination - two battles with the army of Marsilius (one successful, the other disastrous for the Franks), the denouement - revenge on the Saracens and revenge on Ganelon.

The principle of contrast underlies the system of images: Roland is contrasted with King Charles, Olivier and Ganelon. The majestic, mighty Emperor Charles acts as an epic monarch, and his young nephew is an active protagonist, the initiator and main participant in the main events. Roland is a heroic character typical of the epic, like Achilles, Gilgamesh, etc. He is also characterized by fury, immensity (demesure - according to the definition of the French epic), and a heroic overestimation of his strength. Roland refuses to blow the horn in time and call Charlemagne for help. On this occasion, a conflict arises with the reasonable Olivier.

Olivier is intelligent, Roland is brave, and one is equal in valor. (Translation by Yu. Korneev)

Olivier, with all his personal courage, plays the role of an epic reasoner in the poem, and the true hero is Roland with his heroic daring. In The Song of Roland, an understanding of the dialectic of the heroic character is achieved, no less profound than in the Iliad (“the wrath of Achilles”). The interpretation of heroic self-will appears in the form of “tragic guilt”: since Roland refused to blow the horn in time, he is to a certain extent to blame for the death of both himself and his squad, but this guilt stems from his most attractive qualities. Roland’s guilt cannot, of course, be compared in any way with the act of the traitor Ganelon. Roland’s heroic self-will cannot detract from his loyalty to “dear France” and activity in its interests (this is his difference from Achilles). Ganelon, who hypocritically maintains his personal vassal loyalty to Charles, betrays “dear France” out of selfishness and hatred of Roland. In this regard, the image of Ganelon is contrasted with Roland. When the epic goes beyond tribal boundaries, the image of a traitor, guilty of a lost battle, becomes a characteristic figure (cf. Witege in the songs about Dietrich of Bern and especially Vuk Branković in the Serbian youth songs about the Kosovo battle with the Turks).

“Songs of Roland,” as well as other examples of French epic, are alien to any elements of mythology (sometimes they are replaced by features of Christian symbolism - Roland gives the glove to the angel before his death, God stops the Sun so that Charlemagne can complete the defeat of the Saracens).

The legend about historical events of political history forms the essential basis of the plot. In the "Song" vassal loyalty is idealized, primarily in the image of Roland himself. But, as is usually the case in truly heroic epics, vassal loyalty in The Song of Roland is glorified insofar as it develops into devotion to the homeland. As we have seen, it is along this line that the images of Roland and Ganelon contrast. Ganelon, despite his vassal loyalty to Charles, is condemned as the bearer of feudal egoism, feudal anarchy.

Love for the native land in the “Song of Roland”, as is typical for many epics during the period of developed medieval culture (cf. modern Greek, Serbian, Armenian, etc.), also has a church-Christian overtones: the battle in the Roncesvalles gorge is interpreted in terms of sacred wars between the Christian West and the Muslim East. But such coloring in no way turns Roland into a work of clerical culture. Even the spiritual shepherd of the Franks fighting in the Roncesvalles Gorge, Archbishop Turpin, is a brave warrior who demands from others, above all, military courage.

"The Song of Roland" is a strict military epic. Everything that lies outside the boundaries of military heroism itself turns out to be on the periphery of the poem. There are no pictures of everyday life, peaceful life, as in the ancient Greek or Spanish, even German epic. Instead of feasts, we see only a military council. Roland's bride, Alda, dying of grief, appears only at the end of the poem. The weapons and combat fights into which the picture of the battle breaks down are described in most detail. The landscape is very sparse, although expressive:

The ridge is high, darkness reigns in the gorges. The rocks in the depths of the gorges turn black. (Translation by Yu. Korneev)

These lines are repeated several times.

The inner experiences of the characters can only be judged by their external actions. In this sense, “The Song of Roland” occupies an exceptional position in the French epic. She is the best and purest example of the strict epic style in French medieval literature. However, other gestures also have high artistic value. Let's turn to them very much brief consideration. Unlike “The Song of Roland,” most gestures have a heroic-romantic element that allows for grotesquery, which brings them to a certain extent closer to the German Spielmann epic.

The historical prototypes of most of the heroes of the French epic, as well as in the “Song of Roland,” go back to the Carolingian era (kings Charles Martell, Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, Baron Guillaume, who led the war in Spain on behalf of the young Louis; Guillaume’s nephew Vivien, Count Gerard, who was at enmity with his overlord Charles the Bald, etc.).

Wars with the Moors occupy a significant place in these poems, but their main theme, only barely outlined in the “Song of Roland,” is the feuds of prominent feudal knights with kings and among themselves, the depiction of feudal civil strife under weak and often unjust kings, which objectively reflected the situation of the 12th-13th centuries, when the formation of the French epic was completed.

The oldest poem that has reached us, besides the “Song of Roland” and (a fragment of the lost poem “Gormon and Izembar”), is the poem “The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne” (early 12th century). While there are some thematic similarities, it contrasts sharply with The Song of Roland with its crude humor that borders on burlesque. Charlemagne, like the heroes in folk songs or fairy tales, boasts to his wife that he does not know his equal, and then goes to measure his strength with the Greek emperor Hugon. Charles's peers (Roland, Olivier, Ogier, Aimery) also unceremoniously boast of heroic-fairy-tale power and threaten to cause great damage to Hugon. They manage to fulfill their promises thanks to the power of the holy relics that the French received during the pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

At the center of an independent, extensive epic cycle is William of Orange. The oldest poem in this cycle that has come down to us, “Songs of Guillaume” (late 11th century), tells of his struggle with the Moors; in the construction of the poem one can feel the influence of “The Song of Roland”: Guillaume’s nephew, young Vivien, vowed never to retreat before the Saracens, he refuses to turn to his uncle for help and only before his death he sends his cousin with news of an unequal battle with the army of the Cordovan king Derame who landed in France.

Guillaume rushes to avenge Vivien, but his troops are twice defeated by enemies. Only when, on the advice of his faithful and active wife, the baptized Saracen Guibourg, Guillaume obtains a new army from King Louis (who reluctantly yielded to the angry Guillaume), he deals with the Moors (this episode of Guillaume’s epic biography is developed in more detail in the later poem “Aliscans”). Guillaume is a type of heroic vassal, loyal to the king and the interests of France despite the weakness and ingratitude of the king himself (a situation that we encounter in “The Song of My Sid”, in some epics about Ilya Muromets and other examples of epic of the feudal era). Guillaume is a real hero, with an unbridled temper, brave, straightforward, noble. In the poem “The Coronation of Louis,” for the sake of the unity of France, he literally forces Charlemagne to crown his young heir, and kills the traitor Anselin with his fist. In “The Cart of Nîmes” and “The Capture of Orange,” William, bypassed in the distribution of lands, demands that Louis give him only Nîmes and Orange, which are in the power of the Saracens, and he himself conquers these cities by force of arms.

Even as an old man, living in a monastery (“The Monasticism of Guillaume”), Guillaume scares the monks with his obstinacy, beats up a gang of robbers, and when Paris is besieged by the Saracens, he goes there to kill their leader Izore and again save Louis and France. In order of genealogical cyclization, the poems about Guillaume were joined by a whole series of heroic-romantic poems about his “ancestors” and “descendants”. In total, the cycle about Guillaume included 24 poems.

In the poems about Girard of Rousillon and about Ogier the Dane, proud and independent warrior-vassals compete, quarrel and quarrel with the kings, and the sympathies of the epic are entirely on their side. Enmity, however, ends in reconciliation. Reconciliation with Ogier occurs according to purely epic canons: Charlemagne is forced, when the pagans approach, to release Ogier from prison, since he alone can now save France (cf. a similar collision with Ilya Muromets in the Russian epic). The struggle of Charlemagne with rebellious vassals against the backdrop of wars with the Saracens also forms the frame in a very popular poem of the 12th century, rich in heroic and adventure-romantic motifs. "The Four Sons of Emon" (or "Renaud de Montauban").

Some poems reflecting feudal strife (“Raoul de Cambrai”, “The Lorraine”, etc.) depict the struggle of individual clans, families, groups of feudal lords among themselves and the resulting conflicts of vassal duty with kinship relations.

Raoul de Cambrai (a poem about him dates back to the 70s of the 12th century), endowed with the same violent, heroic disposition as Guillaume, Ogier, etc., was deprived by Louis of his father's lands, but he was given someone else's land - the hereditary fief of the counts of Vermandois . The poem depicts a bloody feud between feudal families over two generations. One of the central figures is Raoul’s squire and vassal, Bernier, who is forced to support Raoul against his own parents, who are in the camp of the latter’s enemies, even to endure the death of his mother, who was burned along with everything convent frantic Raoul. Finally, personally offended by his overlord, Bernier goes over to the camp of Vermandois and kills Raoul at the moment when Raoul is intoxicated with his victory over Erno, Count of Douai.

Later gestures were influenced by courtly romance. Already in the second part of “Raoul de Cambrai” the influence of his poetics was felt. In the 13th century, some gestures have an author (Guibert of Dommartin, Adenay-le-Roi, etc.), use only purely external signs of the genre (loess, assonance, plot from national history, etc.), and they can only conditionally be classified to the folk heroic epic. Such are, for example, the poems of Adenay-le-Roy “The Childhood of Ogier” or “Bertha the Big Foot”. The French epic, thanks to Italian folk singer-storytellers (cantastories), penetrated into Italy, where the tales of Roland found a second life in Italian poetry of the Renaissance, especially in Boiardo and Ariosto.

As usual, if you want to understand this or that people, feel their traditions, mentality, understand first of all their native language and epic, since they are the indicator that reveals all the features, subtleties and other nuances inherent in the representatives of the people who you are interested. If you want to more fully experience what the Scandinavians are, turn to the Edds (both the Elder and the Younger), and do not forget about the sagas; Germans - then the way is for you to “The Song of the Nibelungs”; Greeks - well, if you don’t know their epic, then continue talking

Enough (just in case, I remind you of the key words: Troy, Odysseus, Hercules, Achilles, Argonauts and others); Spaniards - pay attention to “The Song of My Cid”; French - then look for the “Song of Roland”, which will be discussed.
“The Song of Roland” is an outstanding monument of world literature. To be honest, when reading this poem, I just want to smile and shake my head and exclaim “oh, these French!” Even their heroic epic is full of boasting, restlessness, despair, pathos, but also courage, contempt for difficulties, brilliance, nobility, dignity, courage.
Behind its artistic essence, “The Song of Roland” is indeed a striking example of an epic with a typical tendency for this type of literature towards monumentality, repetition and variation, elevated by the French passion for hyperbole (that’s what you definitely can’t take away!), pathos and pathos. The historical truth that once served as the basis for the creation of an epic poem (although some researchers disagree on this), and what it finally became, are two diametrically opposed things. But - and here the humorous tone changes to a serious one - this does not prevent the poem from remaining one of the key figures on the board of epics of the world.
In fact, as the official chronicles of those times tell us, Charles the Great’s campaign for the Pyrenees was unsuccessful, and the enemies who attacked the rearguard French army there were Basques, not Saracens. But such details become small and unnoticeable when reading the work. Also, the captivated reader will respond with understanding and grace to such nuances as the fact that the geography of the poem is simply fantastic, that it is estimated that every five French kill at least four thousand infidels, and the sound of Roland's horn sounds for thirty leagues.
It is important that this heroic epic gives us imagination about fidelity and betrayal, honesty and courage, meanness and ingenuity - and all this is surprisingly clearly shown in the poem without halftones and strokes, the presence of which would excuse or, conversely, destroy the categoricalness of our perception of the images of the work. If meanness is ardent, if courage is reckless, if love is living until the last breath of the beloved and dies with him, if God's mercy is before the angels ascend for the hero's glove.
But the main thing (at least in my opinion, that is, the only correct one) is that “The Song of Roland” brings up real heroes among us. Roland is an ideal knight, a patriot, irreconcilable with enemies, and a lover of truth. His friend and comrade-in-arms Oliver is also an outstanding warrior, a sophisticated strategist, less reckless, more sensible. King Charles the Great is the embodiment of wisdom, nobility, honor, loyalty to the state, i.e. those qualities that a true ruler is endowed with. It is in such company that we, the reader of “The Song of Roland,” travel through its pages, take part in wars and battles, and harden ourselves in campaigns. And these knights become models for us, and the honesty and nobility of their images become a light that will show us the right path in the impassability of life.

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Hero of the Celtic epic

The first letter is "o"

Second letter "s"

Third letter "s"

The last letter of the letter is "n"

Answer for the clue "Hero of the Celtic epic", 6 letters:
Ossian

Alternative crossword questions for the word Ossian

Painting by the French artist F. Gerard

The legendary Celtic bard of the 3rd century, on whose behalf the poems of James Macpherson and his imitators were written

Legendary warrior and bard of the Celts, who according to legend lived in the 3rd century

Painting by French artist Francois Gerard

After traveling to the Scottish Highlands, the poet James Macpherson published his adaptations of Celtic folklore as songs of this mythical bard, who, according to legend, lived in the 3rd century

Definition of the word Ossian in dictionaries

encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998 The meaning of the word in the dictionary Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
OSSIAN (Oisin, Oisin) a legendary warrior and bard of the Celts, who, according to legend, lived in the 3rd century. Some of his tales were recorded no later than the 12th century. There is a well-known literary hoax of J. Macpherson, who published his own works under the name of Ossian, which were perceived...

Great Soviet Encyclopedia The meaning of the word in the dictionary Great Soviet Encyclopedia
(Ossian), Oisin, Oisin, legendary warrior and bard of the Celts, who, according to legend, lived in the 3rd century. in Ireland and sang the exploits of his father Finn (Fingal) Mac-Cumhail and his Fenian (Fian) warriors. Tales about them have existed for centuries in Scotland...

Wikipedia Meaning of the word in the Wikipedia dictionary
See the article on James MacPherson Ossian, more correctly Oisin, and in accordance with the Irish pronunciation, Oshin, is a legendary Celtic bard of the 3rd century. The poems of James Macpherson and his imitators were written on his behalf. The Oisin crater on...

Examples of the use of the word Ossian in literature.

Every nation, every era has its own Homer: Valmiki, Visvamitra, Vyasa, Firdousi, Solomon, Kalidasa, Matsuo Basho, Qu Yuan, Ossian, Dante, Shakespeare, Tolstoy.

Everything fell asleep around me, Only the oak forest wind did not rest, Or was shaken by the wind, Fingal’s rusty shield sounded, He hangs on the wall of the palace, And with his decrepit hands he often touches Ossian his.

Strangers met in peace: Kahmor from the high-water Ata and the ruler of the harps Ossian.

Ossian usually repeats at the end of an inserted episode the same sentence with which he opened it.

Ossian opens the poem with a description of the night before the death of the sons of Usnot and reports on the preceding events in an inserted episode.

2.1. French heroic epic

Since ancient times, the Gauls, tribes of the Celtic group, lived on the territory of modern France. In the 1st century BC e. The Romans conquered the Gauls. Under the influence of Roman culture, the rapid Romanization of Gaul began: the introduction of the Latin language, the Roman state administrative system, the practice of Roman schools, Roman law, customs, etc. During the 5th century. The Gallo-Romans were attacked by the warlike Franks and mixed with them, adopting their superior culture and language. In the middle of the 9th century, after the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne, according to the Treaty of Verdun (843), the state of the “Western Franks” was separated - the basis of the future France. According to Engels, France is “the center of feudalism in the Middle Ages...”(1). The literary process here was stronger, more varied and more perfect.

(1) Marx K., Engels F. Works, vol. 21, p. 246.

The French epic has been preserved in the form of poems (there are about 100 of them), in records of the 12th-14th centuries, ranging from 1,000 to 20,000 verses. The poems that have come down to us are known collectively as “chansons de geste” (French: chansons de geste), which means “songs about deeds.” Most of the poems are written in ten-fold silabic verse; poems were composed into stanzas with different numbers of lines, such a stanza was called a tirade. At first there was no rhyme, there was only consonance of vowels (asonance). The poem was recited in a melodious voice to the accompaniment of a small harp or viol, or a primitive violin. If the poem was large, then the juggler would complete it over several days.

According to their meaning, French poems are divided into three cycles (“gestures”).

Royal cycle. The central figure in this gesture is the King of France. This is a collective image of an ideal king, a symbol of people's truth and justice, a stronghold of the country in the fight against foreign “non-Christs” and feudal tyranny. These poems usually depicted Charlemagne, who overshadowed all other French rulers in popular memory.

Cycle of Garin de Montglane. The gesture glorifies the ideal vassal who faithfully serves the weak king and saves the state from external and internal enemies.

Doon de Mayans cycle (or feudal cycle). It tells about selfish feudal strife, which is not always condemned.

The pinnacle of the French national epic is the poem “The Song of Roland” (royal cycle). The poem survives in several records; the best of them, the so-called Oxford manuscript, dates back to 1170. The plot of the poem has a historical basis. In 778, Charlemagne, at the request of a Muslim ruler, invaded Spain. The trip was unsuccessful. Charles captured several cities, besieged Zaragoza, but was forced to return to his homeland. In the Roncesvalles region of the Pyrenees, on a narrow mountain road, among dense forests, the French rearguard was defeated by local Basques, who unexpectedly attacked the French detachment, irritated by the passage of foreign troops through their villages and fields. It was not possible to deal with the Basques: under the cover of darkness they scattered in the mountains. This dramatic incident for the French is briefly reported by the historian Eginhard in the “Biography of Charlemagne” (IX century), noting that “Hruotland, Margrave of Brittany” died in the battle among other noble persons. In folk art, these historical facts and events are intertwined with poetic fiction and received a different interpretation and coloring.

The Song of Roland begins with a celebration of Charlemagne's victory in Spain. The glorious Charles has been fighting the Saracens for seven years. He conquered all Spanish cities except Zaragoza, where the Saracen king Marsilius consults with his noble vassals on how to get rid of the Franks. The eldest of them invites Marsilius to falsely swear eternal friendship to Charles and promise, if the Franks withdraw the army, to accept Christianity himself and baptize all his subjects. In response to the Saracen proposal, Charles, on the advice of his nephew, the knight Roland, sends the noble feudal lord Ganelon, Roland's stepfather, to Marsilius. The arrogant Ganelon is ready to carry out this assignment, but, suspecting his stepson of intending to destroy him, he explodes with anger and decides to take revenge on Roland at any cost. Having concluded a treacherous treaty with Marsilius, Ganelon persuades Charles to return to his homeland. The Franks, believing the hypocritical assurances, leave Spain. On the advice of Ganelon, Charles instructs Roland to cover the rear of the French army. In the mountains, in the Roncesvalles gorge, the twenty-thousand-strong rearguard of the Franks, led by Roland, is attacked by the hundred-thousand-strong army of Marsilius. A fierce battle begins, in which the heroic French detachment dies. Hearing Roland's call, Karl rushes to the rescue. The Franks smash their enemies to pieces and baptize one hundred thousand infidels. The poem ends with the execution of the traitor Ganelon.

The content of the poem reflected important aspects of the life of Western Europe in the 8th-11th centuries. French kings For a long time they fought against Arab-Moorish expansion, which threatened Europe. These wars contributed to the formation of patriotic consciousness and at the same time were regarded as a “godly cause”, the eradication of “paganism”. Moreover, at the end of the 11th century. under the influence of the clergy, the knighthood began to gather for a crusade in Palestine. It is in such a patriotic and religious mood that the folk-heroic content of the “Song of Roland” arises. The poem reflected the contradictions typical of feudal relations in the 10th-11th centuries. Historically, the progressive tendency towards unification and centralization of power ran up against feudal anarchy and separatism. In this historical setting, the folk epic about Charlemagne acquired new social significance and was enriched with new motifs and details necessary for the ideology of that time. Thus, a typical military incident for that time (a clash with the Basques, who were also Christians) was transformed in the epic into a picture of a grandiose battle between the entire French army and the Moorish invaders and the entire Muslim world. The pathos of feat in the name of national independence of the motherland is contrasted with feudal egoism and betrayal. This patriotic idea of ​​​​condemning feudal tyranny makes the Old French “Song of Roland” similar to the monument of ancient Russian literature of the late 12th century. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which also contains a passionate appeal to the princes to stop discord and unite to repel the formidable invasion of nomads.

This popular patriotic idea is most fully revealed in the image of Roland. A brave knight, he is wholeheartedly devoted to his lord - the king and “dear France”. Roland perceives Karl’s order to cover the army’s withdrawal not only as a duty, but also as an honorable task in the name of the interests of the homeland. And he spares no effort to fulfill it with dignity. The thirst for valiant feat, faith in the rightness of the Franks and youthful enthusiasm do not allow him to ask for help in battle. During the unequal battle in Roncesval, Roland's friend Oliver asks Roland three times to put the miraculous horn of Oliphant in order to call Charles for help, and is refused three times. Roland perceives this advice as an admission of weakness unworthy of a knight. Death in battle is better than dishonor This is how Roland, the twelve peers and the entire valiant squad perish. The author is captivated by Roland’s reckless courage and at the same time contrasts him with Olive’s wise prudence: “brave Roland, Olive’er is smart.” And yet Olive’s recklessness is a feat. Roland, in the name of France, covered the name of the hero and the French army with glory. The scenes of Roland's farewell to his comrades, his thoughts about the dead and the living, about the king and France, about the fate of his military weapons are full of the spirit of heroic humanity. Here the valor and spiritual beauty of the national hero is fully revealed:

My good sword, faithful Durandal,

When I die, you won't be needed anymore!

And how many battles have I won with you,

How many kingdoms have you conquered?

For the emperor with a gray beard!

You will not fall into the hands of cowards, -

You were owned by such a vassal,

Which France-beauty no longer knows!

Roland heard himself in the arms of death - Deadly cold in his head and heart. Roland lies down prostrate under the fir tree, Oliphant pressed his sword to his heart, He lay down with his face in the country of the Moors, So that Charles would tell his glorious squad, That Count Roland died - and won (1). The selfless patriotism of Roland and his friends, for whom the interests of France more valuable than life, the noble feudal lord Ganelon is opposed - the embodiment of feudal egoism and anarchy, his betrayal is not accidental, it typical example feudal rebellion. For the sake of personal interests, Ganelon betrays his king and homeland, which led to the death of tens of thousands of compatriots. This destructive arbitrariness of the feudal lords is strictly condemned by the author, who for his time, of course, was a progressive person who understood the need for state unity. He connects vassal loyalty to the king with the idea of ​​serving the homeland. The high nationality of the poem and its deep civic meaning lie in the utterance of the patriotic idea.

(1) Quote. from: Western European Literature. Reader for grades VIII-X of secondary school. /Compiled by Prof. O.I. Beletsky.- K.: Glad. school, 1941, p. 20.

The poem reflects the struggle of the French with the Arab conquerors, who in the 8th century. captured the Iberian Peninsula and threatened France. This struggle took on a religious form and was identified with a feat in the name of Christian faith. Therefore, the Franks in the poem fulfill a special, “divine” mission, and numerous heavenly signs, religious calls, and prayers inspire them to fight the “bastards.” The “heavenly” support that God and the saints give to the Franks is constantly emphasized. So, at the request of the Franks, God continued the day so that before sunset Charles would avenge the death of Roland and his squad; the king himself was instantly healed from his mortal wound by the Archangel Gabriel. The author also pays attention to the image of Archbishop Turpin. In medieval literature, warriors in cassocks are often encountered who are equally good at wielding both the “word of God” and the sword. This image is not without a humorous overtone. Thus, the archbishop reads instructions to his flock: “He who is a coward is not worth a penny. Let him go to a monastery."

The Christian world in the poem is headed by Charlemagne, whose image is presented hyperbolically and idealized. This is a typical image of a ruler in folk epic - gray-bearded, wise, fair, his epic gentleness is combined with severity and inexorability towards enemies and traitors. In the poem, Charles is 200 years old, although during the campaign of 778 he was only 36 years old and was not yet emperor. Obviously, old age in the popular consciousness was associated with mature prudence and wisdom - qualities necessary for the ruler of the people. Moreover, Charlemagne remained in the people's memory as a ruler who did not know military defeats or setbacks.

In addition to the main characters (Roland, Karl, Ganelon, Marsilius), the poem has a tangible presence of a huge number of warriors, French and Saracen. They are all devoted to their ruler and their faith. And although the “unchrists” are credited with many shortcomings (deceit, treachery, cruelty), in battle they are worthy opponents. their military prowess adds even more weight to the French victory.

“The Song of Roland” contains information about the weapons of a knight of the 11th-12th centuries, about military tactics and the customs of that time. Yes, gold gems decorate the warrior's weapons and the harness of the horse - the knight's comrade in arms. Not only the horse, but also the sword, the battle horn, personified - have their own names. So, Roland’s sword is called Durenthal (hard), the horn is called Oliphant (loud).

Female images occupy a secondary place in the poem: the love and everyday themes do not correspond to the strict heroism of the “Song”. And yet Bramimonda (Marsilius’s wife) and Alda (Roland’s bride) make a great impression with their mental fortitude and fidelity of heart. Bramimonde mourns the defeat of the army and the death of her husband. Tender Alda is unable to bear even the news of Roland’s death; she rejects Karl’s concern for her future and, saying that she does not want to live after Roland’s death, dies.

The author describes the nature against which the events take place. Middle Ages loves bright colors: blue sea, ships with red sails, white and yellow flags on the spears of warriors, green color grass, feather grass, fruit trees... Nature in “Song” is in tune with the moods of the characters and the nature of events. The nature of Roncesvalles, where the tragedy is played out, is described in harsh tones: there are high ridges, bottomless abysses and gloomy rocks. The terrible picture of a storm, a tornado, is a prophecy of Roland’s death.

“The Song of Roland” is written in an old French poem with its characteristic consonance. The poem revealed the main features and characteristics of the epic style. The breadth of coverage of events is combined with the slowness and clarity of presentation.

To enhance the drama, special epic techniques were used: repeated tirades (repetition of content almost word for word in stanzas that stand next to each other); threefold repetitions - three times Olive asks to call Karl, three times Roland refuses, three times Roland tries to break Durendal, etc. The poem is characterized by constant epithets characteristic of the epic (France - “love”, “beautiful”, Karl - “gray-bearded”, grass - “ green”, vassal - “kind”, etc.). The closeness of the poem to folk poetry is also evidenced by epic laments (Roland’s cry over the bodies of his comrades, Karl’s cry over the murdered Roland), etc.

The theme of the heroic epic (glorification of heroic deeds) predetermined the monumentalism of the style, idealization, exaggeration and the element of the miraculous. This is especially noticeable in the descriptions of battles, which are striking in their massive scale and brutal bloodshed. So, in a battle in a narrow gorge, two huge armies met. The strength and endurance of the knights in the poem are semi-fantastic. Roland's heroic power is so great that even when mortally wounded, he strikes fear into the entire enemy army. Such exaggeration of the strength and courage of the hero and, accordingly, the cruelty of his enemies is a traditional folklore remedy.

In general, the poem is distinguished by its compositional completeness, harmony and laconicism. The main characters are outlined according to a clear pattern. The solidity and noble simplicity of the style, the solemnly elevated tone of the narrative correspond to the high patriotism of the work. “The Song of Roland” is a worthy monument to heroic deeds in the name of the homeland. The growth in popularity of the poem during the years of the fight against fascism is indicative.

The French heroic epic has gone through a long path of development, which probably had several stages. At first, short lyric-epic songs (kanteleni) and legends arose about events that worried their participants or witnesses. The creators of the epic at an early stage could be noble warriors - and fighters, folk songwriters and storytellers. The songs and translations were very popular among the people; they became a common poetic property that was passed down in oral tradition from generation to generation. In the conditions of the folk poetic relay race, the historical factual basis was gradually erased and replaced by poetic generalizations and symbols, which reflected the main features of the worldview of the people at this historical stage. During the period of the final completion of the feudal structure, the folk epic underwent significant changes. Based on previous achievements (songs, tales, etc.), solid epic stories - poems - arose.

The question of how the poem was created has been of interest to researchers for almost 200 years. Pa early XIX V. The French scientist G. Paris and his like-minded people (“traditionalists”) expressed the opinion that at a certain stage in the development of the folk epic, its bearers, song-storytellers, were composed of individual cantilena songs. (randomly selected) mechanically folded the text of the poem (this is the theory of editorial construction, or “rosary”). Further research proved the inconsistency of this theory, and at the end of the 19th century. she failed. In the 20th century preference was given to the theory of “individual authorship.” Its creator, the French scientist and writer Zhe. Bedier, advocated revealing the identity of the author and actually crossed out the folk past of the epic. At the present stage, a concept has been accepted according to which the folk heroic epic poem arose on the basis of an ancient song, through its plot complications, “swelling” (increasing the number of scenes, episodes, paintings, characters, deepening the psychological interpretation, etc.). However, it should be noted that recently the attention of scientists has been increasingly attracted by the theory of “neo-traditionalists”, developed by the outstanding Spanish medievalist G. Menendez Pidal. In his opinion, the epic genre arises at a time when history and poetry are not yet separated in the minds of people; With the help of songs and poems, people's memory records historical events and facts of reality. Based on research into various versions of the poem about Roland, the scientist came to the conclusion that the heroic poem was born simultaneously with the historical events mentioned in the poem (i.e., bypassing the song stage); This is a true poetic story of a contemporary, “living poetic history.” But over time, the original (original) text in the development of “transmitters” is subject to various kinds of plot alterations, which could lead to significant plot transformation and distortion of historical fact.

The French epic is distinguished by its exceptional plot diversity: from family and everyday sketches to recording important historical events and political problems, on the basis of which it can be called a poetic history of France. For centuries, the folk heroic epic was a huge ideological force that shaped the political and moral worldview of the people.

The poems are preserved in about a hundred manuscripts from the 12th to 14th centuries. In the middle of the 19th century, this genre was rediscovered by romantic philologists, who interpreted it in the same terms that were used at that time to explain Homer’s poems.

The action (with extremely rare exceptions) takes place in the era we call Carolingian; in some cases, in the story you can even recognize memories of famous real events that happened in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. A small number of heroes of songs about deeds are identified with varying degrees of probability with historical figures the same 8th-10th centuries, very rarely - from an earlier or later period: for example, Roland, Guillaume Short Nose, Girard de Vienne more or less directly go back to the personalities of high officials of the empire from the time of Charlemagne or Louis I; Richard the Old from “Roland” is perhaps one of the Dukes of Normandy at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries.

Authorship

Although early chansons de geste are mostly anonymous; their texts contain about fifteen names of poets who claimed the authorship of the corresponding poems. It was believed that three poems were written by one of them, Adena le Roy: “The Childhood of Ogier the Dane”, “Big-footed Bertha” and “Bev de Commarchy”. Obviously, the poets who tell us their names in certain texts were the authors of these texts. The poets who presented themselves in this way probably belonged to aristocratic circles in which the juggler enjoyed a certain respect, and therefore they could well venture into self-promotion without fear of being considered impudent. The authors of many other poems that remain nameless may have come from humbler backgrounds, where poetry was not considered an occupation so respectable that it could be spoken of with pride.

Structure

The general structure of the poems can be misleading: medievalists were often mistaken in assuming that they contained interpolations or damage to the manuscript. As a rule, a song about deeds seems outwardly heterogeneous: it combines episodes of different tone or style, it contains many digressions, repetitions, and contradictions in details. Such facts are explained by the fact that, apparently, until the middle of the 12th century, this genre had an exclusively oral character. At that time, songs about deeds were performed by special traveling singers, jugglers. Many texts indicate the time of recitation: it begins after breakfast and ends at nightfall. For example, the recitation of “Roland,” with various breaks, could last for two days. Starting from the middle of the 12th century, some singers used small (16-17 by 10-12 cm format) pocket manuscripts of rather rough work as cribs; Seven such “juggler manuscripts” have reached us, thanks to which a number of poems have been preserved (“Raoul de Cambrai”, “Girard of Roussillon”, “Aliscance” and, perhaps, Oxford’s “Roland”).

It has been proven that until the 13th century, songs about deeds were performed with musical accompaniment. However, we have music for only one verse, taken from the parody song of deeds, "Audigier", and introduced into one of the musical digressions of "The Games of Robin and Marion" by Adam de la Halle. The singer probably had three melodic phrases at his disposal (each one verse long) and alternated them freely throughout the loessa, giving it a special melodic character. In addition, in some songs at the end of the lessa there is either a laconic refrain or a shortened, so-called “single” verse ( vers orphelin).

All songs about deeds, with the exception of “Hormon and Izambar,” are written in decasyllabic (with caesura according to the scheme 4 + 6, very rarely 6 + 4) or Alexandrian (6 + 6) verse.

Origin

Most researchers believe that Chanson de geste in its original form it most likely arose closer to the middle of the 11th century. Judging by the internal and external data contained in the oldest texts, it most likely originated in the north of France, between the Loire and the Somme, or more precisely, in the western part of this region (in Normandy and its adjacent areas).

Topics

The first medievalists were struck by the time gap between the poems themselves and the real events on which the epic plot was apparently based. Having established that they were separated by three or four centuries of emptiness, they tried to fill it: either by assuming the existence of a continuous tradition and thereby placing the origins of the genre in the Carolingian era, or by putting forward various hypotheses regarding the method of transmission of “epic legends”. Theories on the second question come down to two types: they either assume the presence of local folk traditions, which may include narrative “cantilenas” - a type of lyric epic ballad; or they proceed from the idea that direct data (document, chronicle) were processed by some intermediaries and in this form reached the poets. Their argument is based not so much on facts as on speculation. There are very few reliable documents, all of them have limited significance and are not suitable for broad generalizations. Two of them are constantly mentioned in research: the first, the so-called “Song of Saint Faron” is a fragment of eight verses, clearly epic in content, written in extremely corrupt Latin; it is quoted by a 9th-century hagiographer who sees it as a folk lament performed by female choirs. The second of these documents, The Hague Fragment, is a fragment of an epic poem in a prose Latin retelling of the first half of the 11th century, extremely difficult to interpret: perhaps it is the remnant of some kind of Latin poem of the school type on a plot taken from folk tradition and akin to the future gesture about Guillaume the Short Nose.

Today, medievalists are more likely to think that the process of borrowing occurred differently in different songs about deeds. Some songs (for example, "Gormon and Izambard") could be preceded by cantilenas; others (like, perhaps, the oldest songs from the cycle about Guillaume or “The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne”) are most likely based on amplifications of ecclesiastical origin; finally, sometimes the poet could glean the primary data for a song from the oral traditions of a region (“Girard of Roussillon”) or feudal lineages (“Raoul de Cambrai”), or those preserved and spread along the high roads (“Roland”).

Form

Apparently, in the early period the octosyllabic was used, which was then gradually replaced by the decasyllabic or Alexandrian verse.

The most ancient poems

• "Song of Roland" (mentioned in the Spanish chronicle of 1060-1070)
• “The Song of Guillaume” (mentioned by the historian Orderic Vitaliy, 1080) - a burlesque about a good giant
• "Gormon and Isambard" (reference in the chronicle of Garulf of Saint-Riquier, 1088)
• “The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne” (first half of the 12th century; possibly composed in the Abbey of Saint-Denis) - on the theme of the search for relics, is clearly parodic in nature

All other poems known to us date from after 1150. Almost all of them are closely related to Roland, sometimes a direct imitation.

Evolution

Since the middle of the 12th century, the depiction of the knight’s exploits has been combined with descriptions of his economic life (money, land issues). At the same time, under the influence of courtly morals, female figures appear in the poems, on which the public's interest is partially focused.

At the end of the 13th century, valor is finally pushed aside by other narrative motifs borrowed from the novel: later songs about deeds do not differ from it in practically anything except loess. Songs such as “Aya of Avignon” appear, the “hero” of which is a woman who sows discord in the ranks of warriors with her charms, the enchanting “Guon of Bordeaux” and the poems of Adené-le-Roi, anticipating the romances of the cloak and sword.

Gestures

At the end of the 12th century, “gestures” or song cycles appeared. The starting point of this process is the hero of an existing poem - he either moves into one or several new poems, where other feats are attributed to him; or new songs glorify the ancestors, relatives and even descendants of this hero. It is customary to distinguish three song cycles:

• the cycle about Guillaume - in general terms developed by 1220 and was supplemented throughout the 13th century; a total of 24 poems, including:
  • "Coronation of Louis"
  • "Nîmes cart"
  • "The Taking of Orange"
  • "The Monasticism of Guillaume"
  • "Aliskans"
  • several songs about Emery, Guillaume's fictitious father, and about their ancestors ("The Narbonnese")
• cycle about Charlemagne (finally formed at the end of the 12th - mid-13th centuries)
  • "Minet"
  • "Bazin"
  • "Bertha Bigfoot"
  • "Queen Sybil"
  • "Aquin"
  • "Otinel"
  • "Guy of Burgundy"
  • "Anseis of Cartagena"
  • "Aspremont"
• cycle about the rebel barons (or about Doon de Mayans):
  • "Hormon and Izambar"
  • "Raoul de Cambrai"
  • "The Exploits of Ogier"

Sometimes they also distinguish the “cycle about the Lorraineers”, which includes four or five songs from the late 12th - early 13th centuries, the “Nanteuil Gesture”. Many minor characters are found in songs included in different cycles. In the second half of the 12th century, a fund of epic onomastics developed, from which all authors drew.

Some poems cannot be classified into cycles:

• "Floovant", the hero of which is the son of Clovis
• two 12th-century songs about Elie de Saint-Gilles
• novel song “Ami and Amil” (late 12th century)
• "Guon of Bordeaux."

Literature

• Paul Zumthor. Experience in constructing medieval poetics. SPb., 2002, p. 469-480.

Notes

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