Translation transcription is a formal phonemic reconstruction of the source lexical unit using phonemes of the target language, a phonetic imitation of the source word.

Transliteration is a formal letter-by-letter reconstruction of the source lexical unit using the alphabet of the target language, a letter imitation of the form of the source word.

There are many problems with the use of transcription when translating royal names - titles. For example, the English king James 1 Stewart was traditionally called James 1 Stewart, the form Jacob 1 is found, but the form James 1 is not present. There are discrepancies: Ivan the Terrible - Ivan the Terrible, and John the Terrible.

In its pure form, transliteration is rare and, as a rule, is associated with long-established forms of naming.

For example, Michigan - Michigan (and not Mishigan), Illinois - Illinois (and not Ilinoi).

In relation to a number of objects, traditional forms of translation have been established, which either partially coincide with the original naming: Moscow - Moscow, the Hague - The Hague, or may not coincide at all with the naming of the object in the source language: England - England, the English Channel - English Channel .

When transcribing geographical names, there is often a shift in stress due to the phonetic preferences of the translating language: `Florida - Florida, `Washington - Washington'ton.

Transcription is used when translating the names of companies, publishing houses, and car brands. e.g. Subaru - Subaru, Ford Mustang - Ford Mustang.

There is a rule according to which, if the name includes a significant word, a mixed translation is often used, i.e. a combination of transcription and semantic translation: Gulf of Mexico - Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean - the Pacific Ocean, Hilton Hotel - Hilton Hotel.

Quite complex problems arise when translating names educational institutions in the context of different educational traditions in different countries. Thus, in the American education system, the word school is widely applied to a number of educational institutions, completely different in level and type: high school - high school of the highest level (approximately 10-11 grades), school of law - law school, graduate school - postgraduate study. In such cases, the translator usually relies on specific conditions when making a decision; as a result, however, the discrepancy in the translation of the names of educational institutions introduces some chaos into intercultural communication. Indeed, in Russian the word “institute” is used to designate a university, as well as a research or even administrative institution, while in English-speaking countries the word institute is used in the second meaning.

It is difficult to translate the names of the indigenous peoples of Siberia from Russian. There are correspondences between Buryats - buryat, chukchi - Chukchi, Khanty - khanty. However, a number of names require the translator to independently transcribe them.

For example, the Yukagirs live among the Evens, Chukchi, Yakuts and Russian old-timers (yukagiry, aeveny or evveng or heveny).

There are also discrepancies in the translation of such names of tribes in America as Flathead - flatheads, or flat-headed, Blackfoot - blackfoot, or black-footed.

When translating realities - transcription or standard transliteration (commentary or semantic translation in parallel).

The names of fantastic creatures are also transcribed:

e.g. Baba-Yaga - Baba Yaga, goblin - goblin.

However, some of the names containing semantic components that reflect the properties of the object are translated either by a mixed type or by tracing:

For example, Koshchey the Deathless (Immortal).

CONCLUSION: transcription/transliteration can be used as a component of mixed translation, in parallel with tracing, semantic translation or commentary. Semantic translation consists of the most complete transfer of the contextual meaning of the elements of the source text in units of the target language.

Semantic translation is performed to convey source texts of high scientific or socio-cultural significance, the detailed content of which is intended for a wide range of specialists.

CALQUETING is the reproduction not of the sound, but of the combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language. (Often found when translating borrowings in cases where transliteration was for some reason unacceptable for aesthetic, semantic or other reasons). e.g. skinheads – skinheads (skinheads). Terms and widely used words and phrases are subject to tracing: Winter Palace - Winter Palace, White House - White House.

CONCLUSION: Tracing is used in cases where it is necessary to create a meaningful unit in the translated text and at the same time preserve elements of the form or function of the original unit.

TRANSLATION OF THE ARTICLE AND EXPRESSION OF THE CATEGORY OF DETERMINATION - UNCERTAINTY

The article is a striking example of the discrepancy between the grammatical systems of English and Russian. Such a phenomenon as the article is absent in the Russian language. As a rule, English articles are not translated into Russian, but there are some cases where the article plays an important role in the communication process and must be conveyed during translation.

The meaning of the article can be expressed in Russian using:

1) CASE:

Pour the water into the glass. – Pour water into a glass.

Pour some water into the glass. – Pour water into a glass.

2) WORD ORDER:

A woman came to me. - A woman came to me.

The woman came to me. - The woman came.

3) ONE, SOME, ANY (Article A);

4) THIS, THAT, MOST (Article THE).

A man is waiting for you. - A man is waiting for you.

I enjoyed the film. - I liked the movie.

1. Here is the article you want to read. - This is the article you want to read.

2. Any child can understand this. – A child can understand it.

3. She is a Mrs. Murray. - This is a certain Mrs. Murray.

The special semantic role of the English article can be compensated when translated into Russian due to pronouns:

They were powerful enough not to need a tsar, especiallу the tsar. – In this example, articles certainly play not so much a grammatical as a semantic role, and therefore are subject to functional compensation when translated into Russian: They were powerful enough not to need any kind of king, especially such a king.

TRANSLATION OF DEFINITIONS

Right definition. Left definition

1. The right definition comes after the noun (presents difficulties).

2. The left attribute comes before the noun.

Right definitions can be expressed:

1) Participle 2 – The fuel used was oil. – The fuel used was oil.

2) Infinitive - He was the first to come. - He was the first to arrive.

3) Passive Infinitive – The book to be translated should be taken from the library.

4) Noun with a preposition – in question, under discussion, under consideration/construction: The problem in question was dealt at the conference.

The problem in question was solved at the conference.

5) There are several adjectives that will be translated based on their location in the sentence:

proper pronunciation, the proper decision - the right decision

the decision proper - the decision itself, directly.

Present situation - current situation,

Students present – ​​students present.

CONCEPT OF CHAIN ​​AND TRANSLATION OF CHAIN

There is a big difference in the semantic structures of attributive groups in the Russian and English languages. To do this, the translator needs to do a deep analysis of the context. English speakers actively use attributive constructions with a large number of their components. Let's trace the formation of the attribute group:

EXAMPLE: The tax paid for the right to take part in the election is described as – the poll tax. The states where this tax is collected are – the poll tax states – and the governors of these states are the poll tax states governors. Now these governors may hold a conference which will be referred to as – the poll tax states governors conference.

There are also attributive groups in which an entire sentence can refer to the main noun and be its attribute:

For example: He was being the boss again, using the its-my-money-now-do-as-you`re-told voice.

Sometimes you even have to completely restructure an English sentence when translating it into Russian:

To watch it happen, all within two and a half hours, was a thrilling sight.- It was impossible not to admire, watching how all this happened over the course of just two and a half hours.

Definition: A chain of words are nouns, adjectives, numerals and participles coming after each other within one sentence. The chain never includes: verb, adverbs. Within the chain, the main word is the last word; all other words relate to it and are subordinate. An attributive group can be a noun and a phraseological phrase, a noun and pronouns, sometimes a whole subordinate clause.

For example: Federal Highway authorities - management of federal communication routes.

RULES for dividing long chains into subgroups:

1. Possessive endings signal the end of a subgroup.

2. Words in quotation marks are a separate subgroup.

3. Difficult words usually signal the end of a subgroup.

4. Hyphenated words.

5. If a numeral agrees in number with the main noun, then it will relate to it, and if not, then it will form a subgroup with the one that follows it.

6. There are several noun suffixes that signal the end of a subgroup: laboratory, authority, education, driver (suffix of a figure), development, strength - less often.

FALSE FRIENDS OF THE TRANSLATOR

There are words in the source language and the target language that are more or less similar in form. Formal similarity is usually the result of two words having a common source of origin; they may be derived from Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in many languages, they are classified as “international”. But, as is usually the case, not all international words have the same meanings in different languages. In many cases, the semantics of such words do not coincide, and they are classified as “pseudo-international” vocabulary. The formal similarity of such words gives reason to think that they are interchangeable, which is misleading and leads to many translation errors. For this reason, such words were called the translator's false friends.

False friends translator: 1) general source; 2) borrowings with various stylistic shades.

Pseudo-international words can be divided into 2 groups:

1) words that are similar in form, but completely different in meaning. Here the translator has a very high chance of making a mistake if he does not consult a dictionary. Many mistakes are made when translating words such as “decade, complexion, lunatic, accurate, actual - valid, real.”

It would seem that they correspond to “decade, complexion, sleepwalker,” but they are pseudo-international and are not suitable for translation.

1) It lasted the whole decade. “This went on for a whole decade.

2) She has a very fine complexion. - She has a beautiful complexion.

3) Well, he must be a lunatic. - Yes, he must be crazy.

Secondly, there are many pseudo-international words that are not completely interchangeable, although they may coincide in form and partially in semantics:

Meeting, surprise. (Here it is important for the translator to pay attention to the context).

The second group of false friends of the translator includes: original - first, special - special, special; intelligence - mind, prospect - overview, view, panorama, film - film, conductor - conductor, to construct - build, deputy - deputy, student - student, correspondence - correspondence, correspondence, analogue.

There are several factors, taking into account which you can choose the correct equivalent when translating the translator's false friends:

1. Semantic factor. Words borrowed into both languages ​​from the same source have undergone a certain development: for example, the English idiom can be translated as an idiom, but also develop such additional meaning as a dialect (a local variety of an idiom), an individual style. When we say Shakespeare's idiom, then we will translate it as “dialect, adverb or style.”

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Concepts transcription And transliteration may present certain difficulties for many students in the faculties foreign languages. Not only that transcription And transliteration are so similar in appearance that they put you in a trance, and also due to chronic lack of sleep and colossal academic workload, the brain stupidly refuses to work and is unable to identify the difference between the two concepts.

After reading the article, you will understand that there is nothing complicated about transcription and transliteration. As they say, I will chew everything for you, but I won’t put it in your mouth, because I avoid random connections.

Get ready to radically change your life and finally understand what transcription and transliteration are! If you came here for fresh and unique examples that you are unlikely to find in worn-out and scribbled textbooks, then you are also in the right place. Do you like knowledge mixed with humor? Welcome! There will be something for everyone to learn.

In this article, we will carefully consider what transcription and transliteration are, deeply understand the importance of choosing the optimal technique for conveying a proper name, analyze a bunch of examples of successful and unsuccessful translation solutions, and much, much more.

Transcription and transliteration. Definitions

First, let's define: what are transcription and transliteration? Bruce Willis will help us understand the difference.

I'll help you out dawg

Transcription(=transcription) – reproduction sound

Remember how in schools you were forced to write transcriptions in order to pronounce words correctly. They scared us that if we didn’t write down the transcription for the word sausage(/ˈsɒs.ɪdʒ/), then all our lives we will say SAUSAGE.

Let's look at transcription in relation to translation. Let's take a popular actor as an example. BruceWillis. Pronounce his name the same way a native English speaker would pronounce it. Happened? Now say the same thing, but with a strong Russian accent. Write down what happened. If you did everything correctly, then BruceWillis turned into Bruce Willis. Congratulations! You have just transferred the actor's first and last name using transcription*.

* By the way, the last name can be written as Wilis: The second L does not affect the sound in any way.

Transcription (transcription) in translation – maximum approximate reproduction of the sound of a word. In the case of translation from English into Russian, the transmission is as close as the phonetics of the Russian language allows. One hundred percent preservation of the original sound cannot be achieved due to the lack of certain sounds in the Russian language, for example, such as /r/ and /uː/ in the word Bruce, as well as /ɪ/ in Willis.

By the way, many Russian speakers have no difficulty in reproducing the sound /w/, despite its absence in the Russian language.

The transcription is great because even after pronouncing BruceWillis(or any other proper name) in the Russian manner, native English speakers can easily understand you.

OOOO BRUCE WILLIS IS COOL!

Transliteration– playback letter composition foreign word in the target language.

If you constantly confuse terms transcription And transliteration, then here's a life hack for you: in trans litera tion you can see the presence of the Latin word littera, which means letter in English and... letter in Russian.

There was a time when people wrote in translit, i.e. wrote Russian words in Latin letters. Each Russian letter had its own correspondence and, as a rule, more than one. For example, the letter “Zh” could be written as ZH or as J.

Thanks to transliteration, SMS messages were shorter and, accordingly, cheaper. On the forums, translit was associated with living abroad or playing online games on European and American servers.

Transliteration example: “the file is in the zoo” – > faillezhitvzoopark. Only Russian speakers will be able to correctly pronounce the resulting product. If you gave this to a native English speaker to read, it would look something like fail lezhit in zupark.

As can be seen from the example above, the use of transliteration distorts the sound of the original beyond recognition.

Let's give an example of using transliteration to convey a proper name from English to Russian. Bruce, wait, we're going to need you again now.

Imagine that you are a person who does not know English, but knows how to read Latin letters thanks to algebra, geometry and physics lessons at school. Read BruceWillis. The surname will work out Willis, and the name will become something like Brousse, Brooke or Bruce.

Regardless of which version of the name you choose, it is obvious that transliteration mercilessly destroys the original phonetic structure of the word.

Transliteration is the usual conversion of letters from English to Russian. All you need to do is find a transliteration table on the Internet, where for each letter of one language there is an equivalent from another language, and convert letter by letter.

Let's summarize the difference between transcription and transliteration before moving on to the main part of this article. Let's take out our sausages:

SAUSAGE – > SOSIJ (transcription/transcription);

SAUSAGE – > SAUSAGE (transliteration).

Transcription and transliteration using the example of transferring celebrity names

In order to better understand what transcription and transliteration are, I will give you a bunch of examples of transferring celebrity names from English to Russian.

I would like to note right away: I am for maximum preservation of the original sound when transferring proper names. I am for transcription!

Sounds like a political slogan.

In general, in my opinion, transliteration should be used only in cases where the original sound, when transmitted into the target language, either takes on a politically incorrect/obscene coloring, or is transformed into something unpronounceable.

You can’t just go ahead and pronounce the “unpronounceable.”

We will mainly focus on cases where, during transmission into Russian, the sound of the original was distorted either without any need, or... with secret intent. We will see both minor deviations and serious discrepancies with the original. Let's go through everyone: singers, actors, politicians, heroes of films and books, as well as some brands. Among other things, I will talk about possible reasons why these names or surnames were translated into Russian incorrectly.

You, dear readers, are given the opportunity to be judges and make your own verdict: in which cases it will be more harmonious and appropriate to use the original sound, and in which cases it is better to leave the Russian-language analogue.

So let's get started.

1. Walt Disney

I'm not Walt Disney ©

Disney– > Disney. What translation technique is used here: transcription (the sound of the original is preserved) or transliteration (to hell with the original sound, we just change the letters)?

I might surprise you, but actually Disney in English it sounds something like "dizney". Accordingly, when transmitting this proper name, transliteration was used.

The reason you mispronounced this word is that previously, when transmitting foreign proper names, they predominantly used transliteration. For example, the surname Watson used to be rendered as Watson, but now it sounds much closer to the original - Watson (transcription). Now, thanks to the Internet, you can listen to how native speakers actually pronounce this or that word, but before there was no such privilege.

DISNEY – > DISNEY (transliteration)

DISNEY – > DISNEY (transcription)

2. Hachiko

In a name that has become synonymous with unprecedented fidelity, instead of the letter T in the original * Ch.

HACHIKO – > HACHIKO (???)

Guys, the third method of conveying proper names is politically correct adaptation. Imagine how much trouble translators would have had if they had used transcription in the example above!

* As user RTM noted in the comments, Hachiko is not the original at all, but just a transfer Japanese pronunciations in Latin.

In the Japanese word hachi, the combination CH resembles something between T and C. Thus, there can be no talk of any politically correct adaptation into Russian. They simply took the Japanese original and translated it into Russian in accordance with the rules.

However, this does not change the fact that English speakers pronounce H in Hachiko.

3. Mark Zuckerberg

The founder of the original contact is known in Russia as Mark Zuckerberg. Place your bets: transcription (in the USA they call him Zuckerberg too?) or transliteration?

Mark... with a "K"

IN in this case last name Zuckerberg transmitted using transliteration from German to Russian. Despite the fact that the surname of the king of Facebook is of German origin, in the English-speaking world it is pronounced according to English rules.

ZUCKERBERG – > ZUCKERBERG (transliteration)

ZUCKERBERG – > ZAKERBERG / ZAKERBERG (transcription)

4. Hermione Granger and two ways to convey the letter “H”

I won't surprise anyone by saying that Harry Potter's name actually sounds like Harry. The letter “eych” at the beginning of proper names is conveyed through the letter X or through the letter G. In general, through the best letters of the Russian alphabet.

G (traditional method)

Hannibal – > Hannibal

Hector – > Hector

Henry – > Henry

Homer – > Homer

X (modern way)

Hank – > Hank

Harrison – > Harrison

Holden – > Holden

Hugh – > Hugh

Now consider the transformation from Hermione V Hermione. What was used: transcription or transliteration?

Wingardium Leviosa

In the original the name sounds like “hermáini”. If they wanted to preserve the original sound and used transcription to convey this name, then the stress would fall not on E, but on the second syllable. But this shouldn’t happen in Russian!

If E was replaced by E, then Russian-speaking readers would not be able to take Hermione seriously.

Something between transcription and transliteration would be Germaini, but you can easily make a mistake by saying not the name of the young sorceress, but the name of the country.

In general, the transformation from “hermáini” to Hermione is absolutely justified, in my opinion. Moreover the name Hermione appeared in ancient Greek myths and in Winter's Tale"Shakespeare, from where J. K. Rowling, by the way, borrowed this name. So this is not a crazy invention of post-Soviet translators, but a historically established version of the transmission.

HERMIONE – > HERMIONE (transliteration)

5. Jude Law and Jennifer Lawrence

Jude Law and Jennifer Lawrence. What technique was used to convey their surnames? Transcription? Transliteration? Transdolboyation?

In short, the original sound of these surnames was subjected to a completely senseless distortion. The translators who initiated this error, which has become so ingrained that no one cares, stupidly did not know how to pronounce the combination of letters AW in English. There is no U there at the end. This is not LOW, but LAW!

LO and LAWRENCE - that's right. Can't we say it in Russian? What was the point of making a clumsy symbiosis of transcription and transliteration? If there had been 100% transliteration, it would have worked Love or Lau... in short, everything is very bad.

The case with Lo And Lowe I care most. The fact is that the unsuccessful transfer of these surnames into Russian has a Negative influence on the pronunciation of those learning English. This mistake becomes fixed in people’s minds and I, as a teacher, then have to eradicate it long and hard, because I cannot listen calmly when instead law They say low, instead of saw – sew, instead of drawn – drone etc.

From the example above it is clear: the letter U can either be shoved into surnames without any need, or taken away illegally. Take a look at Edgar Allan Poe's last name. In the original there is a U at the end ( Poe, i.e. Pow), but when transferring the surname into Russian, she drowned)))

POE – > POE (transliteration)

POE – > POE (transcription)

POE –> software (this is how it happened historically)

6. Xena - Warrior Princess

In the 90s they showed the TV series “Xena: Warrior Princess”. In English, this lady's name is pronounced Zina, which, you see, would sound ridiculous in Russian.

Zina is a warrior princess.

XENA – > XENA (transliteration)

XENA – > ZINA (transcription)

XENA – > XENA (transliteration + transcription)

7. Michael Douglas

Michael Douglas is another example of a completely meaningless transformation. In the original the surname reads Douglas. Let's attribute the incorrect transmission to the fact that the translators of the 90s did not have access to YouTube to find the original pronunciation of the surname in a matter of seconds.

DOUGLAS – > DOUGLAS (transliteration)

DOUGLAS – > DOUGLAS (transcription)

8. Jen Psaki

The once famous Jen Psaki's last name is actually pronounced without the letter P.

PSAKI – > PSAKI (transliteration)

PSAKI – > SAKI (transcription)

9. Abraham Lincoln and historical equivalents

16th US President Abraham Lincoln. In the original name - Abraham. Why do we speak Russian? Abraham, and not, say, Abraham? There is Abraham Maslow and his pyramid of needs, so why is the same name translated differently?

Modern translators, when it is necessary to convey an English proper name into Russian, mainly use transcription, although transliteration was previously more popular.

However, there are also historical equivalents that must be adhered to. Unfortunately, due to the large number of exceptions, there are no clear rules, but a general trend can be identified: if we're talking about about an outstanding figure of past centuries, especially a monarch, then the transfer will be done in the traditional way.

However, if we are talking about people born in the 20th century and later, then these same names will be transmitted using transcription:

Lincoln's name is rendered as Abraham, most likely due to the fact that he was born and died in the 19th century, which cannot be said about the more modern Abraham Maslow, who developed the well-known pyramid in the mid-20th century.

The last thing I want to focus on is the last name Lincoln. How does it sound in English? I'll give you a little hint: Lincoln Park is located in the USA. Doesn't this remind you of the name of a certain group? Well, of course, we're talking about LinkinPark.

So here's the last name Lincoln in English it is pronounced the same way as the word is written Linkin, i.e. Linkin. Initially LinkinPark wanted to use the president's surname in their name ( LincolnPark), but due to the impossibility of registering such a domain, several letters were replaced, while maintaining the original sound.

If you use transcription to convey the first and last names of the 16th President of the United States, you will get Abraham Linkin. But we, of course, will not do this.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN – > ABRAHAM LINCOLN (historical rendering + transliteration)

ABRAHAM LINCOLN – > ABRAHAM LINCIN (transcription)

10. David Duchovny

Transformation from DavidDuchovny in David Duchovny - quite strange.

David Dukhovny

Let's start with the fact that this is not a transcription ( Dukovni) and not even transliteration ( Duchovny).

I assume that when transferring the surname, the translators drew attention to the incredible similarity of David’s surname with a Jewish surname Spiritual. Moreover, David's father was Jewish.

All this, of course, is good, but the only thing I don’t understand is why David didn’t Spiritual, but just Duchovny? Is it because Americans, by definition, cannot be spiritual?

DAVID DUCHOVNY – > DAVID DUCHOVNY (Hebrew equivalent without the Y)

DAVID DUCHOVNY – > DAVID DUCHOVNY (transcription*)

* The name David in English is pronounced day-vid, i.e. David. Well, since it happened historically David, then that means it should be so. Transcription ≠ 100% reproduction of the original sound.

Now let's quickly go through the rest. I will show you a common version of the transmission and what it would approximately look like in Russian using transcription.

Original	Common transfer option	Transcription
Scarlett Johansson	Scarlett Johansson	Scarlett Johansen/Johansen
Sylvester Stallone	Sylvester Stallone	Sylvester Stallone
Christian Bale	Christian Bale	Christian Bale
Selena Gomez	Selena Gomez	Selina Gomez
Barbra Streisand	Barbra Streisand	Barbra Strysand
Sherlock Holmes	Sherlock Holmes	Sherlock/Sherlock Homes
Winnie-the-Pooh	Winnie the Pooh	Winnie-de-Pou
Katy Perry	Katy Perry	Katy Perry
Ashton Kutcher	Ashton Kutcher/Catcher	Ashton Kutcher
Lorde	Lorde	Lord
Fergie	Fergie/Fergie	Fergie
Adobe	Adobe/Adobe	Edouby/Edoby
Nike	Nike	Nike

Now you have learned to distinguish between concepts transcription And transliteration. Congratulations!

Read my article about and see video on my channel(there are a lot of videos about English, including the fight against Runglish). Subscribe to the channel and my Instagram.

Categories

/ Komissarov V.N. "Translation Theory (linguistic aspects)"

210. Transcription and transliteration are methods of translating a lexical unit of the original by recreating its form using the letters of the original language. When transcribing, the sound form of a foreign language word is reproduced, and when transliterating its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription while preserving some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of a foreign language word in the target language is always somewhat conditional and approximate: absur dist - absurdist (author of a work of absurdity), kleptocracy - kleptocracy (thieves' elite), skateboarding - skateboarding (roller skating board). For each pair of languages, rules for transmitting the sound composition of a foreign language word are developed, cases of preservation of transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the currently accepted rules are indicated. In English-Russian translations, the most frequently encountered transliteration elements during transcription are mainly the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels (Dorset ["dasit] - Dorset, Campbell ["kaerabalj - Campbell), the transfer of double consonants between vowels and at the end words after vowels (Bonners Ferry, boss) and preserving some of the spelling features of the word, which make it possible to bring the sound of the word in translation closer to already known examples (Hercules missile, deescalation, Columbia). Traditional exceptions concern mainly customary translations of the names of historical figures and some geographical names (Charles I - Charles I, William III - William III, Edinborough - Edinburgh).

The difference between transliteration and transcription should be clarified:

1. In contrast to transcription, intended to convey the sounds of a language as accurately as possible, transliteration, as the term itself shows (Latin litera - letter), concerns the written form of the language: a text written in one alphabet or another is transmitted by the alphabet of another system . In this case, only the correspondence of the letters of two alphabets is usually taken into account, and the sounds hiding behind them are not taken into account.

2. Transliteration is used primarily in relation to dead languages, such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, etc. In addition, texts of living languages ​​that use a little-known or difficult alphabet, such as Arabic, etc., are often transliterated.

3. When transliterating living languages, they usually follow the path of compromise, since to some extent it is necessary to take into account the sound aspect, so as not to tear the word too much away from its living sounding form; in other words, it is not the alphabet that is transliterated, but the graphics system adopted in a given language. For example, a French surname Daudet transliterated in Russian Dode (or Dode), that is, it is taken into account that [combination] au in French means o, and the final t not pronounced. In pure transliteration one would have to write this surname Daudet (or Daudet), which would hardly be rational, since it would be too far removed sonically from the original..

4. Transliteration should be distinguished from transcription, which consists of letter-by-letter transfer of writing from one alphabet to another, for example, from Russian to Latin, or vice versa. Transliteration has wide application in writing geographical names and other proper names. Despite the apparent simplicity of the task of replacing some letters with others, transliteration often presents great difficulties. These difficulties stem from the fact that the composition of the alphabet of one language often does not coincide with the composition of the alphabet of another language...

5. When pure transliteration is impossible for the stated reason, or when it is desirable to convey not the spelling, but the sound of a word or its part, it is necessary to use partial or practical transcription. It goes without saying that the transcription is very conditional, since it does not convey the original pronunciation of the word, but only an approximate one, carried out by the sound means of the borrowing language. Sometimes such transcription can be very close to transcription in the proper sense of the word...

6. Transliteration in its pure form is often not used even when it is quite possible, but separates writing from pronunciation. Name of a French city Rouen it would be possible to write in Russian Rowan, but they prefer the spelling Rouen as closer to French pronunciation.

Transliteration classification

According to the severity of presentation

1) Strict: replacing each character of the source text with only one character of another script (a→a, b→b, c→v...).

2) Weakened: replacement of some characters of the source text with combinations of two or more characters of another script (zh→zh, ch→ch, ya→ya...).

3) Extended: representation of certain combinations of characters in the source text in a special way (й→y).

Conversion rules

Requirements:

1. Unambiguity: ensuring the stability of the representation of elements of the original written language (letters, words, expressions) by means of another (converting) written language.

2.Simplicity: ensuring automatic execution of the procedure for moving from the original text to the converted one based on simple algorithms, mainly reduced to the use of tables for replacing characters of one writing system with characters of another writing system.

3.Also desirable reversibility this transformation so that the original spelling can be restored; in practice this is not always observed.

Compliance with the rules

When applying conversion rules, the requirements for the sound correspondence of the signs of the converted writing systems, aesthetic considerations and traditional norms may not be observed everywhere, although in each individual case it is desirable to develop such rules so that the violation of traditional, phonetic and aesthetic norms is minimal. However, anyone who knows the source language and the rules of conversion has the ability to reconstruct the original text and read it according to the rules of the source language.

Translation or interlingual transformations transformations are called, with the help of which one can make the transition from original units to communicatively equivalent, equivalent translation units. The translator has three main groups of techniques at his disposal: lexical, grammatical and stylistic. Lexical translation techniques applicable when the source text contains a non-standard language unit at the word level. For example, proper name, term, words denoting objects, phenomena and concepts characteristic of the source culture, but absent in the culture of the target language - the so-called realities. One of the most widely used lexical translation techniques is translation transcription. Transcription is defined as a formal phonemic reconstruction of a source lexical item using letters of the target language. In other words, it is a phonetic imitation of the original word. For example, George - George, William - William. In a translated text, the source word is most often presented in a form adapted to the pronunciation characteristics of the target language. In addition to proper names in the group of units translated through translation transcription, most specialists also include geographical names, names of peoples and tribes, names of business institutions, companies, firms, periodicals, names of sports teams, stable groups of rock musicians, national cultural objects ( realities). In relation to a number of objects, traditional forms of translation have been established, for example, Moscow - Moscow, St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg, England - England, the English Channel - English Channel. When transcribing geographical names, it often happens stress shift: Washington – Washington. If the name includes a significant word, a mixed translation is used, i.e. a combination of transcription and semantic translation. For example, Hilton Hotel - Hilton hotel.Transliteration- this is a formal letter-by-letter reconstruction of the original lexical unit using the alphabet of the target language, i.e. letter imitation of the form of the original word. For example, Illinois - Illinois(not Ilina), Michigan - Michigan(not Mishigan). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription while preserving some elements of transliteration: 1. in the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels ( Dorset - Before R set, Campbell- Cam P b e ll); 2. when transmitting double consonants between vowels and at the end of words after vowels ( Bonners Ferry - Bo nn ers Fe pp and, boss - bo ss ). Tracing is defined as the reproduction of the combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language. For example, Russian suffixes - spruce, -chik/-schik / - nick can be correlated with English suffixes –er/-or, -ist. For example, reads spruce–read er, builds spruce–build er, carried box– port er etc. A large number of phrases in the political, scientific and cultural fields practically represent tracings. For example: head of the government – ​​head of the government, Supreme Court- Supreme Court. When using tracing, the translator often has to make some additional transformations - changing the order and number of words in a phrase, case forms, morphological or syntactic status of words in a phrase. For example, first-strike weapon - weapon of the first strike, two-thirds majority - two-thirds majority (votes). Tracing usually involves 1.terms, 2.names of historical and cultural monuments, 3.names works of art, 4. names of political parties and movements, 5. historical events or expressions of general cultural content.