The philosophy of Thomism in brief. Neo-Thomism as the official philosophy of the modern Catholic Church
the belief system created by Thomas Aquinas, as well as the Catholic movement founded by him. philosophy. See art. Scholasticism, Neoscholasticism, Neo-Thomism and lit. with these articles.
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TOMISM
a philosophical movement based on the teachings of Thomas Aquinas; less commonly, this term refers to the philosophy of Thomas itself. The teachings of Thomas Aquinas met with opposition from representatives of traditional Augustinianism. The Parisian Archbishop Aigien Tampier in 1277, on behalf of Pope John XXI (Peter of Spain), condemned 219 provisions, among which about ten can be classified as Thomistic (P. Mandonnet counts 12: on matter as the principle of individuation, on the unity of substantial form, on the primacy of reason over will, etc.). In the same year, the Dominican Robert Kilwardby, Archbishop of Canterbury, condemned a number of provisions of the teaching of Thomas at Oxford (primarily the unity of substantial form); this condemnation was then supported by his successor John Peckham. The Dominicans, who officially recognized Thomism at the meetings of the order in 1278 and 1279 (although not all of them followed it), came to its defense: Thomas's teacher Albertus Magnus visited Paris in 1277 to substantiate the orthodoxy of Thomism, treatises defending the unity of substantial form were written by Aegidius of Rome (1243-1316), Egvdius of Lessin (d. 1278), Harvey Natalis (from Nedellec, d. 1323), Thomas Sutgon (d. 1300), etc.
After Thomas’s works became widespread, a special genre of “Correctives” arose, the authors of which sought to correct certain, incorrect, in their opinion, provisions of Thomas. The “corrections” of the English Franciscan William of La Mare (d. ca. 1285), who polemicized with the teaching of Thomas on the nature of angels, were officially adopted in 1282 by the Franciscan order, causing reciprocal polemics from the Dominicans Richard Clapville, T. Sutton, Jean Quidort (Paris , d. 1306, author of the political treatise “On the Royal and Papal Power”), etc. Thomism strengthened its position after the ecumenical council in Vienne (1311-12) approved the position on the unity of substantial form, and in 1323 in the pontificate of John XXII. Thomas was canonized. The influence of Thomism can be traced outside the Thomistic school itself - on Dante (through his teacher, the Thomist Remigius de Girolami), on the German mystics (in particular, Meister Eckhart and G. Suyu). There were also special movements within Thomism - for example. Albertine-Thomism, which was strongly influenced by Neoplatonism, which included Albert the Great’s students Ulrich of Strasbourg (d. 1277), Dietrich of Freyberg (d. 1310). Among the Thomists of the 15th-16th centuries. the most famous are John Capreol (1380-1444), called princeps thomistamm (prince of the Thomists), the author of “Defense of the Theology of Thomas Aquinas”, Peter of Bergamo, who compiled an index of the works of Thomas (in Tabula aurea, 1473), Francesco di Silvestre of Ferrara (1474-1528) , who compiled a classic commentary on the “Summa against the pagans”, and Tommaso de Vio (Caetan, 1469-1534), who compiled a commentary on the “Summa Theoloptus”, and also wrote the work “On the analogy of names” - De noniimim analogia, in which he systematized and developed Thomas's doctrine of analogy. According to Cajetan, predicates such as “wise,” “good,” etc. are attributed to God and created things in accordance with “proportional analogy”: as human wisdom relates to man, so divine wisdom relates to God. By order of Pope Pius V, who declared Thomas “Teacher of the Church,” in the 2nd half. 16th century the publication of the works of Thomas (the so-called “Piana”) was undertaken.
Criticism of scholasticism during the Renaissance and Reformation led to a decrease in the influence of Thomism. However, the Thomist tradition, which had a strong position on the Iberian Peninsula, flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries, in the works of representatives of the second scholasticism. F. de Vitoria (1483-1546), founder of international law, Domingo de Sotto (1494/5-1560), author of the treatise “On Justice and Law” (De iustitia et hire), Gabriel Vazquez (1550-1604), Domingo Banez (1528-1604), author of a commentary on the first part of the Summa Theologiae, and F. Suarez (1548-1617). Domingo Banes is best known for his polemic with the concept of D. de Molina: according to Banes, a person cannot accept grace if he is not “physically” moved towards this by God in advance (echoes of the polemics of the Molinists and followers of Banes can be found, for example, in Voltaire). The Jansenists polemicized with the doctrine of probabilism by B. Medina, put forward in his commentary on the Summa Theologica (1577).
Suarez's philosophy represents an attempt to creatively rethink Thomism, taking into account its criticism from the Ockhamists and Scotists. According to Suarez, essence and existence are not different things, as many Thomists believed, but mental differences, which, however, have their basis in a thing (Disputationes metaphysicae, 31, 6, 23). Likewise, universals exist “thanks to the intellect with its basis in things” (ibid., 6,5,1). Considering Duns Scotus’s concept of “thisness” redundant, Suarez puts forward “the very unity of this form and this matter” as the beginning of individuation. Solving the problem of the relationship between free will, predestination and grace, Suarez moved away from the teachings of Thomas, leaning towards Molinism. In France, A. Iudin’s monumental work “Philosophy in Accord with the Dogmas of Thomas” (Philosophiajuxta Thomae Dogmata, 1676) was published, in Italy - “Summa Philosophiae” (1777) by Salvador Roselli. The influence of Thomism (and above all Suarez) can be traced in the works of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and Chr. Wolf, In the middle of the 19th century. Jesuits turn to Thomism as a teaching that can provide an answer to the pressing questions of the era (Philosophia Christiana in 5 volumes. Naples, 1853; periodical “Civilta cattolica”, the work of Matteo Liberatore and Joseph Kleutgen). The turning point in the development of Thomism was the encyclical Aetemi patris of Pope Leo XIII (August 4, 1879), in which Thomas was declared the most authoritative Catholic theologian; By decree of Leo XIII, a publication of Thomas’s works, “Leonina,” was published from the end of the 19th to the 20th century. active study and interpretation of his works is underway (M. Grabmann, P. Mandonnet, M. de Wulf, etc.). J. Maritain and E. Gilson strived for an authentic reading of Thomas (so-called paleotomism). See Neotolshsh.
Lit.: Grabmann M. Mittelalterisches Geistesleben. Munch., 1926; Mandonnet P., Desires J. Bibliographie thomiste. P., 1921; Wulf M. de. Histoire de la philosophie medievale. R, 1925; Sertilanges A. G. Les grandes theeses de la philosophie thomiste. P., 1928; WyserP. Der Thomismus. Bem, 1951; Gilson E. History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages. L.-N. Y, 1955; Roensch F. J. The Early Thomistic School. Dubuque (Iowa), 1964; Steenberghen F. v. Le thomisme. P., 1983; The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy, ed. N. Kretzmann, A. Kenny, J. Pinborg. Cambr., 1989.
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Political science tests. (2011)
Subject of political science. Policy. IPU. (Ivanova E.)
1. Correspondence of the definition of politics to the theorist:
4) Politics is the art of government [a]
2) Which theorist owns the definition of “policy – a set of various practical measures to achieve state goals?
a) N. Machiavelli b) V. O. Klyuchevsky in
3) The subjects of politics are...
B) people and organizations carrying out political actions
B) civil society institutions
D) only political leaders
4) The subjects of the policy do not include:
a) social groups b) individuals c) political relations d) political culture e) unions of states
5) What did the Greek word “politics” originally mean?
a) Power of the people. b) The art of governing the state.
c) Policy administration. d) Both, and the other, and the third.
6) Choose the most complete definition of political science and science. This:
a) the science of politics.
b) the science of power.
c) the science of politics, political processes, their patterns and
participants.
D) the science of politics, political life, the role and place of man in it
e) there is no correct answer among the proposed options.
7) What is the subject of political science as a science and academic discipline?
a) politics and its central element - political power,
reflecting political reality, political ideas.
b) political relations in society.
c) the activities of government authorities in conducting internal and
foreign policy.
8) What is the object of political science as a science and academic discipline?
a) the state, its genesis and development as the central institution of the political life of society
b) a person, his role and place in the political life of society
C) politics, political life of society
d) all three points listed above.
9) The object of study of political science is...
A) the political sphere of public life
b) specific development and functioning of society
c) the relationship between public and personal interests
d) social structure of society
10) The ideological and methodological basis of political research is...
a) theory of political systems b) political geography
V ) political philosophy d) political sociology
11) What defines the subject of political science?
a) laws of formation, functioning and development of political power as the central link of politics.
b) objective and subjective factors affecting the implementation of laws adopted by authorities.
c) the mechanism and results of laws in the socio-political development of society.
d) all the above definitions taken together.
12) When did the term “political science” first appear?
a) In the 16th century. b) In the 19th century. c) In the 20th century. d) In the 10th century,
13) Who is usually called the “father” (ancestor) of political science and political science in general?
a) Plato. b) Aristotle. c) Machiavelli. d) Rousseau.
F. Aquinas
2) Plato
3)I. Solbury
15) C The country that became the birthplace of most socio-political teachings in the East is... A) Korea B) Japan C) Tibet D) China
16) What forms of government did Aristotle consider “wrong”, as if degenerate?
a) Tyranny. b) Oligarchy. c) Extreme democracy. G) All of the above.
17) Who was the first in the history of political thought to create a model of an ideal state structure? a) Aristotle; b) Confucius; c) T. Pestilence; G) Plato
18) The form of government that Plato considered perfect is...
A) oligarchy B) tyranny B) aristocracy D) democracy
19) Definition of the state as a common cause
belonged to the people... 1) Plato 2) Aristotle 3 ) Cicero 4) Ulpian
20) Plato identified forms of government...
1) monarchy, democracy, polity; 2) aristocracy, ochlocracy, oligarchy;
3) monarchy, aristocracy, democracy; 4) monarchy, republic, polity
21) Aristotle divided forms of government into “correct” and “wrong” according to the criterion...
1) private property; 2) interests of the majority;
3) minority interests 4) legal equality;
22) The form of government that Aristotle considered “correct”...
1) democracy 2) polity 3) oligarchy 4) timocracy
a) Munzer b) Moter c) More d) Machiavelli
24) With the name of which thinker of the 16th-16th centuries. connected to a policy based on the cult of brute force, disregard for moral standards in order to achieve set goals?
A) Machiavelli B) Hobbes. B) Locke. D) His name is not presented here
25) Which political thinker wrote the words: “The sovereign, acting with brute force, like animals, must combine the qualities of a lion and a fox”?
a) T. Hobbes; b) J. Locke; c) F. Nietzsche; G) N. Machiavelli.
26) The basis of liberalism as an ideological and political direction is:
J. Locke
3) Machiavelli
The doctrine of Thomism is genetically linked to the name
F. Aquinas
2) Plato
3)I. Solbury
2) The basis of liberalism as an ideological and political direction is:
J. Locke
3) Machiavelli
3) Correspondence of the definition of politics to the theorist:
1) Politics is the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power [g]
2) Politics is a set of means that are necessary in order to come to power and use it usefully [in]
3) Politics is a concentrated expression of economics [d]
3) Politics is the art of government [a]
A) Plato B) Aquinas C) Machiavelli D) Weber E) Lenin
4) Which theorist owns the definition of “policy – a set of various practical measures to achieve state goals?”
a) N. Machiavelli b) V. O. Klyuchevsky in) M. Weber d) K. Marx e) Plato
5) The subjects of politics are...
A) the exclusive state and its structures
Related information.
(Thomism). The direction in philosophy and theology coming from Thomas Aquinas. It went through several stages in its development; many philosophers supported it and many rejected it.
After the death of Thomas Aquinas he had no direct followers, but his system was supported by many theologians, especially his brethren in the Dominican Order and his teacher Albertus Magnus. Nevertheless, the church authorities did not accept Thomas’s Aristotelian views, and in 1277 certain provisions of his system were condemned in Paris and Oxford. Through the efforts of the Dominican Order, the theology of Thomas Aquinas was restored to its rights, and he himself was canonized (1323).
From this point on, Thomism became one of several competing schools of medieval philosophy. In particular, he opposed himself to classical Augustinianism and, relying primarily on Aristotle, defended a unified anthropology, where the soul is the form of the body. What Thomas was for the Dominicans, Dune Scotus became for the Franciscans. Scotism argued with Thomism about free will and the question of the analogy of being. Finally, Thomism, together with the two aforementioned schools, sided with moderate realism and rejected nominalism. At the same time, Thomas's followers divided into different groups and went their own ways within the framework of national movements. This tendency is most clearly visible in the Dominican Meister Eckhart (1260-1328). He developed mysticism, which still dominated German theology more than a century later.
The central figure of Thomism is the general of the Dominican Order, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajetan (1469-1534). His high position in the Church contributed to the authority of his commentaries on the system of Thomas Aquinas. Among the hallmarks of Cajetan's Thomism is the analysis of analogy—he argued that the concept is best thought of as a proportional relation of one attribute to two entities, rather than as a predication of an attribute as primary relative to one entity and inferential to another. He thought in terms of abstract entities, unlike his predecessors, who focused their attention on existing substances. In addition, he questioned the evidence of the existence of God and the immortality of the soul.
Thomism became the leading school of Catholic thought in the 16th century. Several factors contributed to his authority. The Jesuit Order (established in 1540) relied on the teachings of Thomas; The Council of Trent (first convened in 1545) deliberately couched many of its definitions in Thomistic phraseology.
Thomism entered victoriously into the 17th century, but it was then that the lack of its strength and originality was revealed. John St. Thomas (1589-1644) is a prominent representative of this era. He taught and commented on the works of Thomas, was a zealous and ardent servant of the Spanish Inquisition and a close adviser to King Philip. Thus, the intellectual, theological and political tendencies of Thomism were concentrated in it. But the dominance of Thomism carried within itself the seeds of its collapse. Because of the lack of competition, Thomism closed in on itself and could not cope with the rise of rationalism and empirical science.
Thomism did not want to adapt to the demands of the era, and the only possible alternatives at that time were obscurantism or non-Thomistic philosophy. As a result, although Thomism was still alive (primarily in Dominican circles), by the 18th century. he has exhausted himself.
But in the beginning XIX century There was another sudden change in the fortunes of Thomism. Catholic thinkers began to look to Thomas's writings for vital answers to their most pressing and unresolved questions. The problem of human dignity in the face of increasing industrialization of society led to the revival of Thomism. The scholastics turned to the authority of Thomas Aquinas. By the beginning of the First Vatican Council (1869-70), Thomistic principles were again in force. In 1879 Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Patris called on the Church to study the works of Thomas. This was a real triumph of Thomism. As a result, the neo-Thomism movement arose, which successfully developed until the mid-century. XX century
W. Corduan (translated by A.K.) Bibliography: V. J. Bourke, ThomisticBibliography: 1920-1940: Yo. Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas; H.John, Thomist Spectrum; T.L. Miethe and V.J. Bourke, Thomistic Bibliography: 1940-1978.
See also: Kaetah, Fomad Vio; Neo-Thomism; Scholasticism; Thomas Aquinas.
PHILOSOPHY OF AUGUSTINE
Augustine lived during the transition period (354–430) between antiquity and the Middle Ages. Born in the city of Tagaste in northern Africa in the family of a Roman official. From his father he inherited a hot temperament, impressionability, exaltation and a thirst for a full-blooded life. Augustine began his life by tasting the pleasures of “physical life,” and only then, feeling dissatisfied with this life, he set out in search of the highest truth. By his own admission, he went through “the abyss of abominations,” “the abyss of vices,” and “the steepness of passions.” He paid tribute to all the hobbies inherent in youth. Later in his literary masterpiece "Confession" Augustine will mercilessly castigate himself for his commitment to carnal pleasures.
Augustine’s spiritual evolution is complex; he went through a winding path of spiritual quest: paganism–Manichaeism–skepticism–Neoplatonism–Christianity. The love of wisdom, which in Greek is called philosophy, was kindled in him by Cicero. Augustine became acquainted with his work “Hortensius”, enjoyed this book, and it was she who “exhorted” him to love wisdom and “to cling tightly to it.”
Augustine's philosophy is a synthesis of ancient cultural heritage with Christian values. Augustine turned out to be one of the first great theologians who connected antiquity and Christian times. Aurelius Augustine - classic of patristics. The core of Augustinian worldview is love, grace, faith. Augustine's philosophy is distinguished by unprecedented psychologism. In his theory of personality, Augustine was the first to show that the life of the human soul is something incredibly complex and hardly fully definable. According to Augustine, it is not the world that is a mystery, but man. " What a mystery man is!” The culmination of his reasoning about man can be considered the recognition: « The great abyss is man himself; his hair is easier to count than his feelings and the movements of his heart.” . Augustine was a keen observer of human mental states. A new feature of Augustine's thinking was attention to the dynamics of the human personality.
Augustine's psychologism is also revealed in his teaching about time as a correlate of the remembering, contemplating and waiting soul. The soul waits, listens, remembers. In Augustine we find a brilliant analysis of the problem of time. “What is time?” - asks Augustine “As long as no one asks me about this, I understand, I don’t have any difficulty; but as soon as I want to give an answer about this, I become completely stumped. Meanwhile, I am fully aware that if nothing came, then there would be no past, and if nothing passed, then there would be no future, and if there was nothing that really exists, then there would be no present time. But what is the essence of the first two times, i.e., past and future, when both the past no longer exists and the future does not yet exist? As for the present, if it always remained present and never passed from the future to the past, then it would not be time, but eternity. And if the present remains a real time only on the condition that the future passes through it into the past, then how can we attribute to it a real essence, basing it on something that does not exist? Is it only in this respect that it constantly strives towards non-existence, ceasing to exist every moment.”
Augustine owns the idea of the trinity of time, the original thought about the simultaneity of three modes of time: “Now it becomes clear to me that neither the future nor the past exists and that they are inaccurately expressed about three times when they say: past, present and future; but it would be more accurate, it seems, to express it this way: the present of the past, the present of the future. Only in our soul there are three forms of perception corresponding to this, and not somewhere else (that is, not in objective reality). Thus, for the present of past objects we have memory or recollection; for the present of present objects we have a glance, a view, contemplation, and for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope.”
The genetic and substantial beginning of everything, for Augustine, is God. The existence of God, according to Augustine, can be directly derived from human self-consciousness.
The problem of a mystically meaningful dialectic of history is presented in Augustine’s treatise “On the City of God.” Two cities were created by two types of love: earthly - love for oneself to the point of neglecting God, and the city of God, which is based on love for God, brought to contempt for oneself. Just as every human soul is a battlefield between God and the devil, so history is a battlefield between the good and sinful kingdoms. The course of history, the life of society is a struggle between two opposing kingdoms - the Earthly (sinful) and the Divine.
Augustine was one of the first in the history of spiritual culture to create an integral aesthetic system. Some of his ideas (the doctrine of the mechanism of aesthetic perception and judgment, certain provisions of his sign theory, his reasoning about the structural laws of beauty and art, in particular, the law of contrast) have retained value to this day.
“I want to know God and the soul. - And nothing more than that? Absolutely nothing.
Love God and do what you want.
Let us believe if we cannot understand.
A person begins to die from the moment of birth... or rather, he lives and dies at the same time.
Two hail - the wicked and the righteous - have existed since the beginning of the human race and will remain until the end of the century. Now the citizens of both live together, but they want different things, but on the day of judgment they will be sentenced differently.”
What is time? How to understand the “duration” or “shortness” of time, where do they exist? In the past, but it is no longer there. In future? But he's not there yet. So, in the present. But if we take a segment of the present time of any length - a hundred years, a year, a month, a day, an hour, etc., we will see that it consists of three intervals. One of them is in the past, the other is still in the future, and the third is the shortest moment, indivisible into the smallest parts, and constitutes the actual present time. It is so short that there is no duration in it. If it lasted, it would be possible to separate the past from the future; the present does not continue. But how then can we measure time, compare time periods, etc.?
Where is this elusive time?
The will in us is always free, but not always good.
To be wise means to die to this world.
Don't make irrevocable judgments!
PHILOSOPHY OF THOMAS AQUINAS (THOMISM)
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - medieval theologian, major scholastic, official philosopher of the Roman Catholic Church.
The main works of Thomas Aquinas: “Summa Theologica”, (“Summa against the Gentiles”), commentaries on the Bible, commentaries on the works of Aristotle.
The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas is a synthesis of Aristotle's ideas with Christian values. Like Aristotle, Thomas proceeded from the antithesis of the potential (possible) and the actual (actual). “Pure potentiality” is matter, the weakest form of being; it is characterized only by passive receptivity to external influences. The actual is realization, fulfillment, completeness. Form is relevant - the principle of order and clarity. Absolute actuality, not allowing any potentiality, is God, the source of all design.
Thomas offers five proofs for the existence of God:
1) “from motion”: everything that moves is moved by something else - therefore, there is a prime mover of everything - God;
2) “from the cause”: everything that exists has a cause - therefore, there is the first cause of everything - God;
3) “from the accidental and necessary”: not everything that exists is accidental, but in the world there must be something necessary, necessary in itself - this is God;
4) “from the degree of perfection”: we find among things more or less perfect. But we talk about a greater or lesser degree in the case when there is a different approximation to a certain limit. There is something that has perfection to the utmost degree, and that is God;
5) “from expediency”: we are convinced that objects devoid of intelligence, such as natural bodies, are subject to expediency. They are guided by someone gifted with intelligence and understanding, just as an archer guides an arrow. Therefore, there is a rational being who sets a goal for everything that happens in nature - this is God.
Exploring the problem of knowledge, Thomas comes to the following conclusions:
Faith and reason simultaneously participate in the process of cognition;
If human reason contradicts faith, then it gives untrue knowledge;
Everything in the world is divided into what can be known rationally (reasonably) and what is unknowable by reason;
Philosophy can only explain what is knowable by reason;
Everything else (the problems of the creation of the world, original sin, the trinity of God) can be known through Divine revelation.
The main question of the epistemology of Thomas (and all other medieval philosophers) is knowledge of God. Thomas considers the religious-mystical path to be fundamental in the knowledge of God. This is expressed, firstly, in the fact that full and direct knowledge of God is possible only in that (future) life. Unlike other mystics, Thomas believes that such knowledge of God cannot be achieved in this life either by faith or prayer. It can come to a person only from a direct vision of God in the future life, when a person leaves his bodily nature. As he writes, the soul cannot cognize entities outside of matter (and such is God) in the status of this life, where it is connected to the body.
The second mystical moment in Thomas's epistemology is the knowledge of God through grace and divine revelation already in this life. They are impossible without love for God and the desire to know him. This path of knowledge is characteristic of theology, which Thomas calls “sacred wisdom.” The only undoubted evidence of the existence of God, according to Thomas, is his (God’s) own words from the Holy Scriptures: “ I am the one who exists».
Thanks to revelation we come to know the most essential and most mysterious, inaccessible ordinary human understanding (mind) of the Divine being and his actions. “The created mind,” writes Thomas, “cannot know the Divine essence, unless God appears and reveals himself through his grace.”. In addition to theology, there is another way of knowing about God in this life - the scientific-rational way. This is knowledge through nature, using natural cognitive abilities or natural reason. It is inherent in sciences and philosophy. In the philosophical doctrine, which considers creations in themselves and from them ascends to God, creations are considered at the very beginning and only God at the end.
Thomas Aquinas distinguishes essence (essence) and existence (existence). He believes that every thing is an entity that came into existence by the will of God. God, who gave existence to an entity, can deprive this entity of existence, therefore, things are transitory and impermanent.
The historical significance of the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas is that he was:
- five proofs of the existence of God are given;
- scholasticism was systematized;
- the separation of essence and existence is fixed;
- the idea was put forward about the truth of knowledge obtained by the mind only if the mind corresponds to faith;
- spheres of existence are identified that can only be known through revelation;
- philosophy and theology are separated, and philosophy is placed in a subordinate position in relation to theology.
Thomas Aquinas
For human salvation it was necessary that, in addition to the philosophical disciplines, which are based on human reason, there should be some science based on Divine revelation.
Since God is the universal manager of all things, it must be attributed to his providence that he allows individual defects to be present in some particular things, so that the perfection of the general good is not damaged. Indeed, if all cases of evil were eliminated, then the universe would lack many blessings. Thus, without the killing of animals, the life of lions would be impossible, and without the cruelty of tyrants, the steadfastness of martyrs.
In things composed of matter and form, essence means not one form and not one matter, but that which is composed of a general form and matter in accordance with generic principles.
When a person is offered truths about God that go beyond the limits of reason, then through this the opinion is strengthened in a person that God is something that exceeds everything that can be thought.
CONCLUSION
The Middle Ages occupies a long period of European history from the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance (XIV-XV centuries). The philosophy that took shape during this period had two main sources of its formation. The first of these is ancient Greek philosophy, primarily in its Platonic and Aristotelian traditions. The second source is Holy Scripture, which turned this philosophy into the mainstream of Christianity.
The idealistic orientation of most philosophical systems of the Middle Ages was dictated by the basic dogmas of Christianity, among which the most important were the dogma of the personal form of God the creator, and the dogma of God’s creation of the world “out of nothing.” In the conditions of such a cruel religious dictate, supported by state power, philosophy was declared the “handmaiden of religion”, within the framework of which all philosophical issues were resolved from the position of theocentrism, creationism, and providentialism.
Theocentrism - (Greek theos - God), such an understanding of the world in which God is the source and cause of all things. He is the center of the universe, its active and creative principle. The principle of theocentrism also extends to knowledge, where theology is placed at the highest level in the system of knowledge; Below it is philosophy, which is in the service of theology; even lower are various private and applied sciences.
Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, therefore general philosophical and Christian ideas are closely intertwined in it. The main idea of medieval philosophy is theocentrism. The roots of the philosophy of the Middle Ages lie in the religion of monotheism (monotheism). Christian monotheism is based on two most important principles that are alien to the religious-mythological consciousness and, accordingly, to the philosophical thinking of the pagan world: the idea of creation and the idea of revelation. Both of them are closely related to each other, because they presuppose a single personal God, God is a reality that determines all things. The idea of creation underlies medieval ontology, and the idea of revelation forms the foundation of the doctrine of knowledge.
Thus, differences in the functions performed by people are the result not of the social division of labor, but of the purposeful activity of God.
Mysticism meh
The identity of faith and knowledge, in which faith still dominated, and reason was given a subordinate role ab
harmony of faith and reason, for they come from the same basis - the Divine Reason fa
Scholasticism fa
Patristics aa
I believe because it’s absurd”
« What a mystery is man!
“I want to know God and the soul. - And nothing more than that? Absolutely nothing. Ahh
God, the source of all design. F
The doctrine of being is close to Neoplatonism ab
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; less commonly, this term refers to the philosophy of Thomas itself. The teachings of Thomas Aquinas met with opposition from representatives of traditional Augustinianism. Parisian Archbishop Etienne Tampier in 1277 on behalf of Pope John XXI ( Peter of Spain ) condemned 219 provisions, among which about ten can be classified as Thomistic (P. Mandonnet counts 12: on matter as a principle individuation , about the unity of substantial form, about the primacy of reason over will, etc.). In the same year, the Dominican Robert Kilwardby, Archbishop of Canterbury, condemned a number of provisions of the teaching of Thomas at Oxford (primarily the unity of substantial form); this condemnation was then supported by his successor John Peckham. The Dominicans, who officially recognized Thomism at the meetings of the order in 1278 and 1279 (although not all of them followed it), came to its defense: the teacher of Thomas Albert the Great in 1277 visited Paris to substantiate the orthodoxy of Thomism, treatises in defense of the unity of substantial form were written Aegidius of Rome (1243–1316), Aegidius of Lessines (d. 1278), Harvey Natalis (of Nedellec, d. 1323), Thomas Sutton (d. 1300), etc.
After Thomas’s works became widespread, a special genre of “Correctives” arose, the authors of which sought to correct certain, incorrect, in their opinion, provisions of Thomas. The “corrections” of the English Franciscan William of La Mare (d. ca. 1285), who polemicized with the teaching of Thomas on the nature of angels, were officially adopted in 1282 by the Franciscan order, causing reciprocal polemics from the Dominicans Richard Clapville, T. Sutton, Jean Quidort (Paris , d. 1306, author of the political treatise “On the Royal and Papal Power”), etc. Thomism strengthened its position after the ecumenical council in Vienne (1311–12) approved the position on the unity of substantial form, and in 1323 in the pontificate of John XXII Thomas was canonized. The influence of Thomism can be traced outside the Thomist school itself - on Dante (through his teacher, the Thomist Remigius de Girolami), on the German mystics (in particular, Meister Eckhart And G. Suso ). There were also special movements within Thomism - for example. Albertino-Thomism, which was strongly influenced by Neoplatonism, which included the students of Albertus Magnus Ulrich of Strasbourg (d. 1277), Dietrich of Freyberg (d. 1310). Among the Thomists of the 15th–16th centuries. the most famous are John Capreolus (1380–1444), called princeps thomistarum (prince of the Thomists), the author of the “Defense of the Theology of Thomas Aquinas,” Peter of Bergamo, who compiled an index of the works of Thomas (in Tabula aurea, 1473), Francesco di Silvestro of Ferrara (1474–1528) , who compiled a classic commentary on the Summa against the Pagans, and Tommaso de Vio (Caetan, 1469–1534), who compiled a commentary on the Summa Theologiae, and also wrote the work “On the Analogy of Names” - De nominum analogia, in which he systematized and developed Thomas's teaching about analogies . According to Cajetan, predicates such as “wise,” “good,” etc. are attributed to God and created things in accordance with “proportional analogy”: just as human wisdom relates to man, so divine wisdom relates to God. By order of Pope Pius V, who declared Thomas “Teacher of the Church,” in the 2nd half. 16th century the publication of the works of Thomas (the so-called “Piana”) was undertaken.
Literature:
1. Grabmann M. Mittelalterisches Geistesleben. Münch., 1926;
2. Mandonnet P.,Destres J. Bibliographie thomiste. P., 1921;
3. Wulf M. de. Histoire de la philosophie médiévale. P., 1925;
4. Sertilanges A.G. Les grandes theèses de la philosophie thomiste. P., 1928;
5. Wyser P. Der Thomismus. Bern, 1951;
6. Gilson E. History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages. L.–N.Y., 1955;
7. Roensch F.J. The Early Thomistic School. Dubuque (Iowa), 1964;
8. Steenberghen F. v. Le thomisme. P., 1983;
9. The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy, ed. N. Kretzmann, A. Kenny, J. Pinborg. Cambr., 1989.
K.V.Bandurovsky